Dried Fruit & Infusions
Traditional herbal infusions prepared from dried bilberries, alongside jellies, preserves and dried whole fruit.
Infusion · Whole Fruit
French Pharmacopoeia List A · Commission E · EMA Monograph
Biological Overview
Vaccinium myrtillus L. is a low spreading sub-shrub of the Ericaceae family, native to acidic, humus-rich soils, forest floors and drying peat bogs across Europe and western Asia. Its dark blue-black berries are exceptionally rich in anthocyanosides, the polyphenolic pigments responsible for most of the fruit's documented vasoprotective and antioxidant activity. Both fruit and leaf are used medicinally, though prolonged leaf use carries cautions not shared by the fruit.
FamilyEricaceae
Anthocyanosides~0.5% fresh fruit
Catechin Tannins~10% (fruit)
Chromium9 ppm (leaf)
Botanical Classification
Taxonomy & Identification
- Latin Name
- Vaccinium myrtillus L.
- Family
- Ericaceae
- Common Names
- Bilberry, European Blueberry, Myrtille, Airelle, Bluet, Brimbelle
- Parts Used
- Fruit (primary), Leaf
- Origin
- Europe & western Asia (acidic soils, peat bogs)
- Habit
- Sub-shrub, 30–60 cm, angular erect stems
Ethnobotany & Traditional Use
History & Tradition
Bilberry has long been gathered from heaths, moist coniferous forests and tundra-adjacent highlands across Europe and western Asia, prepared as herbal infusions, mother tinctures, fluid and dry extracts, and as jellies, preserves and dried fruit.
Modern pharmacological interest dates to the 1960s and accelerated through the 1970s–1990s, when foundational studies on Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanosides established their vasoprotective and pharmacokinetic profile, followed by a comprehensive 1996 review consolidating the plant's phytochemistry and pharmacology.
In 2009, the Natural Standard Research Collaboration published a formal evidence-based systematic review of bilberry, and the European Medicines Agency has since issued a herbal monograph on the dried fruit, recognising activity also acknowledged by the German Commission E.
⚠ Naming Confusion
True bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) is sometimes called "blueberry" in North America, but the blueberry sold there is mainly harvested from related yet botanically distinct species — chiefly Vaccinium myrtilloides and Vaccinium angustifolium — produced principally in Maine and Quebec.
The Key Molecule
Anthocyanosides — Deep Dive
Heterosides of delphinidin, malvidin and cyanidin make up roughly 0.5% of fresh bilberry fruit, and underlie nearly every pharmacological effect documented for the plant.
🩸
💨
👁️
⚠ Standardization Matters
Anthocyanin content varies widely between bilberry preparations
The pharmacological activity documented in the literature derives largely from standardized, anthocyanoside-rich extracts of the fruit — historically studied under names such as "Myrtocyan" — rather than from unstandardized dried fruit, tea infusions, or whole-fruit preparations of unknown anthocyanin content. [7]
Pharmaceutical Preparations
Parts Used & Available Forms
The fruit is the primary part used, available across a spectrum of traditional and standardized preparations.
Mother Tincture & Fluid Extract
Fruit mother tincture and fluid extract preparations, used in traditional phytotherapeutic practice.
Tincture · Fluid Extract
Standardized Dry Extract
Standardized dry extract of the fruit, the form most associated with the standardized anthocyanoside-rich preparations used in modern research.
Dry Extract · Standardized
Phytochemistry
Composition
Documented phytochemistry differs meaningfully between fruit and leaf — the basis for their distinct uses and safety profiles.
Fruit
AnthocyanosidesHeterosides of delphinidin, malvidin, cyanidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, hirsutidine & petunidin
~0.5%
Catechin TanninsCondensed tannin fraction of the fruit
~10%
ProanthocyanidolsDimers of catechol and epicatechol
Present
FlavonoidsHyperoside, quercetol & kaempferol heterosides
Present
Phenolic AcidsMalic, citric, quinic, chlorogenic, p-coumaric & ferulic acids
Present
Oligosaccharides & PectinsSoluble sugar and pectin fraction
3–7%
Trans-resveratrolStilbenoid compound
Trace
Leaf
Catechin Tannins & CatecholsEpicatechol, gallocatechol, epigallocatechol
1–7%
ProanthocyanidolsDimers of catechol and epicatechol
Present
FlavonoidsQuercetol & kaempferol heterosides
Present
IridoidsDocumented iridoid fraction
Present
Chlorogenic Phenolic AcidsPredominantly chlorogenic acid derivatives
Present
Quinolizidine AlkaloidsMyrtine & epimyrtine
Present
ChromiumLinked to documented hypoglycemic activity
9 ppm
🩸
Vasoprotective & Capillary-Strengthening
More active than rutin in tests of capillary permeability and vascular resistance, with a long duration of action and reduced edema. [5][6]
🧬
Antiplatelet Activity
Flavonoids and anthocyanosides inhibit platelet aggregation and adhesiveness, documented in preparations such as Myrtocyan. [7]
💨
Vasomotor & Microcirculatory Support
Stimulates vascular wall PGI2 activity and improves arterial vasomotion and microvascular flow redistribution. [8]
🫀
ACE-Inhibitory Activity
The whole extract inhibits angiotensin-converting enzyme activity in human endothelial cells, though isolated anthocyanidins alone are not active. [10]
🦴
Anti-inflammatory & Joint Protective
Improves articular function and reduces bone resorption, tissue swelling and osteophyte formation in animal arthritis models. [11]
👁️
Night Vision & Retinal Protection
Supports rhodopsin regeneration and provides antioxidant retinal protection, though robust human clinical trials remain lacking. [12][13]
🧠
Memory Support
Blueberry supplementation has been associated with improved memory performance in older adults in a controlled trial. [14]
🦠
Antibacterial (Urinary & Intestinal)
Inhibits adhesion of E. coli to bladder and intestinal walls and shows anti-biofilm activity, though with less clinical evidence than cranberry. [15][17]
☀️
Photoprotective (UVA/UVB)
Protects keratinocytes against UVA- and UVB-induced phototoxic stress and DNA damage. [18][29]
🔬
Anti-angiogenic & Ocular Protective
Inhibits angiogenesis, with activity implicated in diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration and glaucoma-related neovascularization. [20][36]
🛡️
Antioxidant
Protects against oxidative hepatic and renal damage, attributed to free-radical scavenging by anthocyanosides and tannins. [30][31]
⚖️
Metabolic Syndrome Support
Regular moderate intake of bilberries or anthocyanins is associated with reduced cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes risk. [28]
Clinical Applications
Clinical Indications
Traditional and modern phytotherapeutic uses, drawn directly from the documented indications for the whole plant.
🩸
Vascular & Circulatory Health
Venous & Capillary Disorders
👁️
Ocular Health
Vision & Retinal Conditions
- Macular degeneration: documented indication linked to retinal antioxidant and anti-angiogenic activity. [48]
- Retinal microcirculation support: traditional indication tied to vasoprotective and antioxidant mechanisms.
🌿
Gastrointestinal & Urinary
Digestive & Bladder Conditions
- Colitis & functional bowel disorders: documented traditional indication for the whole plant.
- Urinary tract infections: traditional indication, used similarly to related Vaccinium species such as cranberry.
- Spasmodic colitis pain: documented traditional indication for symptom relief.
⚖️
Metabolic Syndrome
Diabetes, Obesity & Hypertension Prevention
- Metabolic syndrome prevention & management: diabetes, obesity and hypertension, attributed to anthocyanoside content. [49]
Pharmacodynamics
Mode of Action
The documented mechanisms behind bilberry's vascular, ocular and antimicrobial effects.
🩸
Capillary Permeability & Vascular Resistance
Polyphenols act directly on capillary permeability and vessel wall resistance, with documented benefit for varicosities at the arterial-venous interface.
👁️
Rhodopsin Regeneration
Anthocyanosides and anthocyanidins support regeneration of rhodopsin (visual purple) in retinal photoreceptor cells. [12]
🧬
Free Radical Scavenging
Anthocyanosides and tannins act as antioxidants, neutralizing reactive oxygen species and reducing oxidative tissue damage. [30]
🦠
Bacterial Anti-Adhesion
Inhibits adhesion of E. coli and related uropathogens to bladder and intestinal mucosa, a mechanism shared with related Vaccinium species. [15]
Clinical Safety
Safety, Interactions & Precautions
Documented contraindications, drug interactions and precautions for fruit and leaf preparations.
Adverse Effects
- Chronic leaf use: prolonged therapeutic use of the leaf is not recommended due to risks documented in animal studies.
- High-dose leaf toxicity: cachexia, anemia, jaundice and disturbed muscle tone observed in animals at very high doses (1.5 g/kg/day).
- Fruit use: no contraindication to fruit use during pregnancy per the EMA herbal monograph.
Contraindications & Drug Interactions
- Antidiabetic medications: theoretical additive hypoglycemic effect given documented hypoglycemic activity.
- Antiplatelet drugs: potential interaction given documented antiplatelet and platelet-adhesiveness activity. [7][43]
- Long-term leaf therapy: not recommended due to chronic-use risk profile, independent of any specific medication.
Clinical Disclaimer: This monograph is for educational and professional reference only. It does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment guidance. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider before initiating any phytotherapeutic regimen, particularly if you are taking prescription medications, are pregnant, or have existing health conditions.
Common Questions
Frequently Asked Questions
Is bilberry the same plant as blueberry?
Not exactly. Vaccinium myrtillus, the true bilberry, is native to Europe and western Asia. What is commonly called blueberry in North America comes mainly from related but distinct species, Vaccinium myrtilloides and Vaccinium angustifolium, principally grown in Maine and Quebec.
Which part of the bilberry plant is used medicinally?
The fruit is the primary part used and carries the strongest evidence base. The leaf is also used traditionally, but prolonged therapeutic use of the leaf is not recommended due to documented risks in high-dose animal studies.
What are anthocyanosides and why are they important in bilberry?
Anthocyanosides are polyphenolic pigment glycosides, derived from delphinidin, malvidin, cyanidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, hirsutidine and petunidin, that make up about 0.5% of fresh bilberry fruit. They are considered responsible for most of the fruit's documented vasoprotective, antioxidant and retinal-protective activity.
Does bilberry improve night vision?
Bilberry anthocyanosides are documented to support regeneration of rhodopsin and provide antioxidant retinal protection in preclinical research. However, a systematic review of placebo-controlled trials found clinical evidence for improved night vision in humans is lacking.
Can bilberry help with urinary tract infections?
Bilberry extracts have documented antibacterial and anti-adhesion activity against E. coli and Proteus mirabilis, similar to related Vaccinium species such as cranberry. However, the clinical evidence supporting bilberry specifically for UTI prevention is considerably weaker than for cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon).
Is bilberry fruit safe to use during pregnancy?
According to the European Medicines Agency's herbal monograph on Vaccinium myrtillus dried fruit, there is no contraindication to fruit use during pregnancy, and it has traditionally been used for prevention of phlebitis in pregnant women.
Can bilberry interact with diabetes or blood-thinning medication?
Yes. Bilberry carries a theoretical additive effect with antidiabetic medications due to its hypoglycemic activity, and a potential interaction with antiplatelet drugs given its documented effect on platelet aggregation.
Is long-term use of bilberry leaf safe?
Prolonged therapeutic use of the leaf is not recommended. High-dose animal studies (around 1.5 g/kg/day) have documented cachexia, anemia, jaundice and disturbed muscle tone with chronic leaf exposure. These risks are not associated with fruit use.
Primary Literature
Bibliography
↑1. Szajdek A, Borowska EJ. Bioactive compounds and health-promoting properties of berry fruits: a review. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2008 Dec;63(4):147-56. PubMed PMID:18931913 →
↑2. Ieri F, Martini S, Innocenti M, Mulinacci N. Phenolic distribution in liquid preparations of Vaccinium myrtillus L. and Vaccinium vitis idaea L. Phytochem Anal. 2013 Sep-Oct;24(5):467-75. PubMed PMID:23868799 →
↑3. Lietti A, Cristoni A, Picci M. Studies on Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanosides. I. Vasoprotective and antiinflammatory activity. Arzneimittelforschung. 1976;26(5):829-32. PubMed PMID:9100 →
↑4. Lietti A, Forni G. Studies on Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanosides. II. Aspects of anthocyanins pharmacokinetics in the rat. Arzneimittelforschung. 1976;26(5):832-5. PubMed PMID:989354 →
↑5. Thorne Research. Vaccinium myrtillus (Bilberry) Monograph. Alternative Medicine Review. 2001;6(5):500.
↑6. Sévin R, Cuendet J. Effets d'une association d'anthocyanosides de myrtille et de β-carotène sur la résistance capillaire des diabétiques. Ophthalmologica. 1966;152:109-117. DOI: 10.1159/000304960 →
↑7. Morazzoni P, Magistretti MJ. Activity of Myrtocyan, an anthocyanoside complex from Vaccinium myrtillus (VMA), on platelet aggregation and adhesiveness. Fitoterapia. 1990;61(1):13-21.
↑8. Colantuoni A, Bertuglia S, Magistretti MJ, Donato L. Effects of Vaccinium Myrtillus anthocyanosides on arterial vasomotion. Arzneimittelforschung. 1991 Sep;41(9):905-9. PubMed PMID:1796918 →
↑9. Bertuglia S, Malandrino S, Colantuoni A. Effect of Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanosides on ischaemia reperfusion injury in hamster cheek pouch microcirculation. Pharmacol Res. 1995 Mar-Apr;31(3-4):183-7. PubMed PMID:7630857 →
↑10. Persson IA, Persson K, Andersson RG. Effect of Vaccinium myrtillus and its polyphenols on angiotensin-converting enzyme activity in human endothelial cells. J Agric Food Chem. 2009 Jun 10;57(11):4626-9. PubMed PMID:19441816 →
↑11. Figueira ME, et al. Protective effects of a blueberry extract in acute inflammation and collagen-induced arthritis in the rat. Biomed Pharmacother. 2016 Oct;83:1191-1202. PubMed PMID:27551767 →
↑12. Matsunaga N, et al. Bilberry and its main constituents have neuroprotective effects against retinal neuronal damage in vitro and in vivo. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2009 Jul;53(7):869-77. PubMed PMID:19415665 →
↑13. Canter PH, Ernst E. Anthocyanosides of Vaccinium myrtillus (bilberry) for night vision — a systematic review of placebo-controlled trials. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004 Jan-Feb;49(1):38-50. PubMed PMID:14711439 →
↑14. Krikorian R, et al. Blueberry supplementation improves memory in older adults. J Agric Food Chem. 2010 Apr 14;58(7):3996-4000. PubMed PMID:20047325 →
↑15. Silva S, et al. Antimicrobial, antiadhesive and antibiofilm activity of an ethanolic, anthocyanin-rich blueberry extract purified by solid phase extraction. J Appl Microbiol. 2016 Sep;121(3):693-703. PubMed PMID:27349348 →
↑16. Marhova M, Kaynarova E. Effect of Blueberry Extract on Pathogenic Strains Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis. Proceedings of the Balkan Scientific Conference of Biology, Plovdiv, 2005, p.21-27. Full Text →
↑17. Jepson RG, Craig JC. A systematic review of the evidence for cranberries and blueberries in UTI prevention. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2007 Jun;51(6):738-45. PubMed PMID:17492798 →
↑18. Calò R, Marabini L. Protective effect of Vaccinium myrtillus extract against UVA- and UVB-induced damage in a human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT cells). J Photochem Photobiol B. 2014 Mar 5;132:27-35. PubMed PMID:24577051 →
↑19. Davidson KT, et al. Blueberry as a Potential Radiosensitizer for Treating Cervical Cancer. Pathol Oncol Res. 2017 Sep 30. PubMed PMID:28963664 →
↑20. Matsunaga N, Tsuruma K, Shimazawa M, Yokota S, Hara H. Inhibitory actions of bilberry anthocyanidins on angiogenesis. Phytother Res. 2010 Jan;24 Suppl 1:S42-7. PubMed PMID:19496063 →
↑21. Kim J, Kim CS, Lee YM, Sohn E, Jo K, Kim JS. Vaccinium myrtillus extract prevents or delays the onset of diabetes-induced blood-retinal barrier breakdown. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2015 Mar;66(2):236-42. PubMed PMID:25582181 →
↑22. Matsunaga N, Chikaraishi Y, Shimazawa M, Yokota S, Hara H. Vaccinium myrtillus (Bilberry) Extracts Reduce Angiogenesis In Vitro and In Vivo. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2010 Mar;7(1):47-56. PubMed PMID:18955266 →
↑23. Dutot M, Rambaux L, Warnet JM, Rat P. Modulation du stress oxydant par la myrtille riche en polyphénols sur un modèle de cellules humaines de rétine. Journal français d'ophtalmologie. 2008;31(10):975-980. Full Text →
↑24. Ogawa K, et al. The protective effects of bilberry and lingonberry extracts against UV light-induced retinal photoreceptor cell damage in vitro. J Agric Food Chem. 2013 Oct 30;61(43):10345-53. PubMed PMID:24083563 →
↑25. Yao N, Lan F, He RR, Kurihara H. Protective effects of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) extract against endotoxin-induced uveitis in mice. J Agric Food Chem. 2010 Apr 28;58(8):4731-6. PubMed PMID:20222750 →
↑26. Milbury PE, Graf B, Curran-Celentano JM, Blumberg JB. Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) anthocyanins modulate heme oxygenase-1 and glutathione S-transferase-pi expression in ARPE-19 cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007 May;48(5):2343-9. PubMed PMID:17460300 →
↑27. Rahman MM, Ichiyanagi T, Komiyama T, Sato S, Konishi T. Effects of anthocyanins on psychological stress-induced oxidative stress and neurotransmitter status. J Agric Food Chem. 2008 Aug 27;56(16):7545-50. PubMed PMID:18662010 →
↑28. Kalt W, Cassidy A, Howard LR, Krikorian R, Stull AJ, Tremblay F, Zamora-Ros R. Recent Research on the Health Benefits of Blueberries and Their Anthocyanins. Adv Nutr. 2020 Mar 1;11(2):224-236. PubMed PMID:31329250 →
↑29. Svobodová A, Zdarilová A, Vostálová J. Lonicera caerulea and Vaccinium myrtillus fruit polyphenols protect HaCaT keratinocytes against UVB-induced phototoxic stress and DNA damage. J Dermatol Sci. 2009 Dec;56(3):196-204. PubMed PMID:19747801 →
↑30. Chu W, Cheung SCM, Lau RAW, et al. Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.). In: Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S, eds. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2011. Ch. 4. Full Text →
↑31. Valentová K, Ulrichová J, Cvak L, Šimánek V. Cytoprotective effect of a bilberry extract against oxidative damage of rat hepatocytes. Food Chemistry. 2007;101:912-917. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.02.038 →
↑32. Bao L, Yao XS, Yau CC, Tsi D, Chia CS, Nagai H, Kurihara H. Protective effects of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) extract on restraint stress-induced liver damage in mice. J Agric Food Chem. 2008 Sep 10;56(17):7803-7. PubMed PMID:18690680 →
↑33. Zafra-Stone S, Yasmin T, Bagchi M, Chatterjee A, Vinson JA, Bagchi D. Berry anthocyanins as novel antioxidants in human health and disease prevention. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2007 Jun;51(6):675-83. PubMed PMID:17533652 →
↑34. Bagchi D, Sen CK, Bagchi M, Atalay M. Anti-angiogenic, antioxidant, and anti-carcinogenic properties of a novel anthocyanin-rich berry extract formula. Biochemistry (Mosc). 2004 Jan;69(1):75-80. PubMed PMID:14972022 →
↑35. Roy S, Khanna S, Alessio HM, Vider J, Bagchi D, Bagchi M, Sen CK. Anti-angiogenic property of edible berries. Free Radic Res. 2002 Sep;36(9):1023-31. PubMed PMID:12448828 →
↑36. Sparrow JR, Vollmer-Snarr HR, Zhou J, Jang YP, Jockusch S, Itagaki Y, Nakanishi K. A2E-epoxides damage DNA in retinal pigment epithelial cells. J Biol Chem. 2003 May 16;278(20):18207-13. PubMed PMID:12646558 →
↑37. Fursova AZ, Gesarevich OG, Gonchar AM, Trofimova NA, Kolosova NG. Dietary supplementation with bilberry extract prevents macular degeneration and cataracts in senesce-accelerated OXYS rats. Adv Gerontol. 2005;16:76-9. PubMed PMID:16075680 →
↑38. Wang LS, Stoner GD. Anthocyanins and their role in cancer prevention. Cancer Lett. 2008 Oct 8;269(2):281-90. PubMed PMID:18571839 →
↑39. Teller N, Thiele W, Marczylo TH, Gescher AJ, Boettler U, Sleeman J, Marko D. Suppression of the kinase activity of receptor tyrosine kinases by anthocyanin-rich mixtures extracted from bilberries and grapes. J Agric Food Chem. 2009 Apr 22;57(8):3094-101. PubMed PMID:19323506 →
↑40. Davidson KT, Zhu Z, Balabanov D, Zhao L, Wakefield MR, Bai Q, Fang Y. Beyond Conventional Medicine — a Look at Blueberry, a Cancer-Fighting Superfruit. Pathol Oncol Res. 2018 Oct;24(4):733-738. PubMed PMID:29285736 →
↑41. Cooke D, Schwarz M, Boocock D, Winterhalter P, Steward WP, Gescher AJ, Marczylo TH. Effect of cyanidin-3-glucoside and an anthocyanin mixture from bilberry on adenoma development in the ApcMin mouse model of intestinal carcinogenesis. Int J Cancer. 2006 Nov 1;119(9):2213-20. PubMed PMID:16823841 →
↑42. Sakakibara H, Ogawa T, Koyanagi A, Kobayashi S, Goda T, Kumazawa S, Kobayashi H, Shimoi K. Distribution and excretion of bilberry anthocyanins in mice. J Agric Food Chem. 2009 Sep 9;57(17):7681-6. PubMed PMID:19663426 →
↑43. Maillefert O. Vaccinium myrtillus L.: une plante médicinale à anthocyanosides. Sciences pharmaceutiques. 2010. dumas-00593157.
↑44. Melzig MF, Funke I. Inhibitors of alpha-amylase from plants — a possibility to treat diabetes mellitus type II by phytotherapy? Wien Med Wochenschr. 2007;157(13-14):320-4. PubMed PMID:17704980 →
↑45. Helmstädter A, Schuster N. Vaccinium myrtillus as an antidiabetic medicinal plant — research through the ages. Pharmazie. 2010 May;65(5):315-21. PubMed PMID:20503920 →
↑46. Cignarella A, Nastasi M, Cavalli E, Puglisi L. Novel lipid-lowering properties of Vaccinium myrtillus L. leaves, a traditional antidiabetic treatment, in several models of rat dyslipidaemia: a comparison with ciprofibrate. Thromb Res. 1996 Dec 1;84(5):311-22. PubMed PMID:8948058 →
↑47. Morazzoni P, Bombardelli E. Vaccinium myrtillus L. Fitoterapia. 1996;LXVII:3-29.
↑48. Li X, Zhao L, Zhang B, Wang S. Berries and Their Active Compounds in Prevention of Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Antioxidants. 2024;13(12):1558. DOI: 10.3390/antiox13121558 →
↑49. Naseri R, Farzaei F, Haratipour P, Nabavi SF, Habtemariam S, Farzaei MH, Khodarahmi R, Tewari D, Momtaz S. Anthocyanins in the Management of Metabolic Syndrome: A Pharmacological and Biopharmaceutical Review. Front Pharmacol. 2018 Dec 4;9:1310. PubMed PMID:30564116 →
Additional Reference Literature
Wichtl M, Anton R. Plantes thérapeutiques: Tradition, pratique officinale, science et thérapeutique. Éd. Tec & Doc, Cachan. 1999. p.377.
Ulbricht C, et al. An evidence-based systematic review of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration. J Diet Suppl. 2009;6(2):162-200. PubMed PMID:22435415 →