Accession · Pharmacognosy · Bioavailability Enhancer · King of Spices

Black Pepper

Piper nigrum L. — Piperaceae

Piper nigrum L. — The world's most traded spice harbours piperine, a molecular key that transforms how the body absorbs drugs and nutrients, activates pain receptors, and suppresses seizure activity.

18Primary Refs
12Properties
BerryParts Used
✦Researched
Last Updated
Primary Source Wikiphyto · NCBI PubMed · Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
Family Piperaceae
Pharmacopoeia · Ayurvedic · Traditional Chinese Medicine

Biological Overview

Piper nigrum is a perennial woody climbing vine native to the southwestern coast of India (Malabar Coast), now cultivated across tropical Asia, Brazil, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. Its small, round berries — processed at different stages of maturity — yield black, white, and green pepper, all derived from the same plant.

Growth habitClimbing liana
Max lengthUp to 20 m
Fruit diameter4–8 mm
Piperine content5–10% dry wt.
Botanical Classification

Taxonomy & Identification

Latin Name
Piper nigrum L.
Synonym(s)
Piper aromaticum Lam.
Family
Piperaceae
Common Names
Black pepper, White pepper, Green pepper, King of Spices, Poivrier commun (FR), Hu jiao (TCM), Maricha / Kali mirch (Ayurveda)
Parts Used
Fruit (berry); Essential oil (from unripe dried fruit)
Origin
Southwest India (Malabar Coast); widely cultivated in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Brazil
Ethnobotany & Traditional Use

History & Tradition

Black pepper has been central to human civilisation for over 4,000 years. Considered the "King of Spices," it was used in Ayurvedic medicine as maricha, one of the principal herbs of Trikatu (the three pungents), prized for digestive fire, respiratory clearing, and fever management. Ancient Sanskrit texts describe its use in combination with long pepper and ginger — a formulation that presaged modern understanding of piperine's bioavailability-enhancing role.

In Greek and Roman antiquity, pepper was so valuable it served as currency; Alaric the Visigoth's ransom demand in 410 AD for the city of Rome included 3,000 pounds of pepper. Trade routes were shaped by its pursuit, and the desire for direct pepper access was a principal economic driver of the Age of Exploration. Medieval European physicians used it as an antipyretic, carminative, and analgesic, mirroring Ayurvedic applications.

In Traditional Chinese Medicine, hu jiao (black pepper) is classified as acrid and hot, warming the stomach and dispersing cold. It is used for cold-type epigastric pain, vomiting, and diarrhoea — applications that align with its documented action on TRPV1 receptors and gastric motility. The distinction between black (unripe, dried), white (ripe, decorticated), and green (fresh/freeze-dried) pepper represents different processing of the same fruit, yielding different aromatic and piperine profiles.

⚠ Nomenclature Alert

Cayenne pepper (Capsicum frutescens) is a completely unrelated plant from the Solanaceae family. Its pungency comes from capsaicin — a different compound — and it shares no botanical or alkaloid relationship with Piper nigrum. Do not confuse the two in clinical or purchasing contexts.

c. 2000 BCE — Vedic Period

First documented in Ayurvedic texts as maricha. Black pepper is a core component of Trikatu alongside long pepper (P. longum) and ginger, used to enhance the bioavailability of other herbs — a role now validated pharmacologically.

4th Century BCE — Ancient Greece

Theophrastus and later Dioscorides documented pepper in Greek pharmacopoeia for digestive and fever complaints. Trade with India via Arabian intermediaries made pepper the most valuable commodity in Mediterranean commerce.

15th–16th Century CE — Age of Exploration

Vasco da Gama's 1498 voyage to Calicut (Kozhikode) on the Malabar Coast broke the Arab trade monopoly on pepper. The Portuguese, Dutch, and British pepper trade drove colonial expansion across South and Southeast Asia.

1994–2013 — Modern Pharmacology

Piperine isolated and characterised; BioPerine® patented (Sabinsa). Human clinical data confirm bioavailability enhancement. Smoking-cessation trials using black pepper essential oil inhalation published in Drug and Alcohol Dependence (1994) and J Altern Complement Med (2013).

Present — Global Trade

Black pepper remains the world's most traded spice by value. Vietnam, Indonesia, India, and Brazil are leading producers. Global piperine supplement market driven by its role as a bioavailability co-factor in nutraceutical formulations, especially with curcumin.

Lead Phytochemical

Piperine Deep Dive

The amide alkaloid responsible for black pepper's pungency and most of its pharmacological profile — a molecule that rewrites the rules of drug absorption.

⚗️

Chemistry & Structure

Piperine (1-piperoylpiperidine) is an alkaloid amide formed from piperic acid and piperidine. It constitutes 5–10% of black pepper dry weight. Related alkaloids include piperamide, piperettine (also piperidine amides), and piperyline (a pyrrolidine amide). Unlike capsaicin, piperine is not a phenolic vanilloid but activates the same TRPV1 receptor via its alkyl amide backbone.[8]

🧬

Intestinal Absorption Mechanics

Piperine is absorbed very rapidly across the intestinal barrier. At the brush border, it induces alterations in membrane dynamics — increasing fluidity and modifying cytoskeletal protein synthesis — resulting in measurable expansion of the absorptive surface of the small intestine. This structural modulation is distinct from, and additive to, its enzyme-inhibition effect.[6] [10]

💊

Enzyme Inhibition & Drug Interactions

Piperine inhibits a broad spectrum of drug-metabolising enzymes — CYP3A4, CYP1A1, CYP1A2 — and P-glycoprotein efflux transporters responsible for first-pass clearance of many pharmaceuticals. This explains its documented ability to increase plasma ibuprofen concentration[9] and its enhancement of curcumin bioavailability in combination studies. The clinical implication: piperine supplementation at pharmacological doses (≥ 10 mg) can elevate levels of co-administered drugs into potentially toxic ranges.[5]

🧠

Central Nervous System Activity

Piperine acts as a CNS depressant with documented anticonvulsant and antiepileptic properties in preclinical models. Separately, it activates TRPV1 and TRPA1 vanilloid receptors in sensory neurons — producing analgesia and thermosensory effects at these peripheral and central sites.[2] [3] First-pass hepatic metabolism generates antioxidant metabolites, adding a secondary protective mechanism.

Materia Medica

Parts Used & Forms

The same climbing vine yields radically different products depending on when the berry is harvested and how it is processed.

i

Black Pepper (Dried Unripe Fruit)

Harvested when the berry turns red, then dried — causing the pericarp to wrinkle and blacken. Contains the highest piperine levels (5–10% dry weight) and the full essential oil complement (1–3.5%). The standard culinary and medicinal form. Used as whole berries, cracked, or ground. Forms the basis of piperine extracts and BioPerine.

ii

White Pepper (Ripe, Decorticated)

Picked at full maturity and soaked in water before the outer pericarp is removed. Retains the inner kernel (endosperm). Lower piperine content than black pepper; reduced aromatic complexity due to loss of the outer layer's essential oil. Preferred in pale-coloured dishes and some Asian culinary traditions.

iii

Essential Oil (Steam-Distilled)

Cold- or steam-distilled from dried unripe berries. Rich in monoterpenes (limonene 20%, α-pinene 15%, β-pinene 10%, δ-3-carene 10%) and sesquiterpenes (β-caryophyllene 20%, germacrene-D 4%). Contains no piperine (alkaloids are non-volatile and do not distil). Used in aromatherapy for musculoskeletal pain, sympathomimetic stimulation, and documented smoking-cessation support.

iv

Standardised Piperine Extract (BioPerine®)

Solvent-extracted and purified concentrate standardised to ≥ 95% piperine. The commercially dominant form for nutraceutical co-formulation. Typical dosing in clinical studies: 5–20 mg per capsule. Manufactured under cGMP with third-party testing — the only form with documented human bioavailability data across multiple peer-reviewed trials.

Posology

Dosages

Dosing ranges documented in primary literature and pharmacognosy references. Clinically relevant doses are far below culinary intake levels.

Form Preparation Dose Notes
Standardised extract (piperine 95%) Oral capsule — co-administered with target compound 5–20 mg / day Bioavailability co-factor dose; human studies typically use 5 mg piperine + 500 mg curcumin. [7]
Black pepper powder (food-grade) Culinary use / dietary spice ~1–5 g / day Typical dietary intake; roughly 50–500 mg total piperine — sufficient for mild synergistic effects but not standardised. [8]
Essential oil — aromatherapy Inhalation via diffuser or cartridge 2–3 drops inhaled as needed Smoking-cessation protocols used vapour from black pepper extract; inhalation increases plasma adrenaline (sympathomimetic). [17]
Essential oil — topical Diluted 2–3% in carrier oil, applied locally 2–5 mL diluted blend For musculoskeletal pain; β-caryophyllene contributes analgesic activity. Avoid mucous membranes and broken skin.
Root aqueous extract (P. longum) Decoction or standardised extract As per formulation Antidiabetic and antihyperlipidaemic properties documented in STZ-induced diabetic rat models; clinical human data lacking. [13]
Phytochemistry

Composition

Two chemically distinct fractions: the alkaloid–phenolic matrix of the fruit and the terpenoid essential oil from the same berry's volatile fraction.

Fruit — Alkaloid & Phenolic Matrix

PiperinePiperidine amide — primary alkaloid; pungency + bioavailability
5–10%
PiperamideMinor piperidine amide alkaloid
Alkaloid
PiperettinePiperidine amide; structural isomer of piperine
Alkaloid
PiperylinePyrrolidine amide — structurally distinct from piperidine series
Amide
PellitorineIsobutylamide alkamide — anticancer activity documented
Alkamide
Flavonoids & ChalconesPhenolic compounds; antioxidant contribution
Polyphenol
Lignans & NeolignansSecondary phenylpropanoids; anti-inflammatory support
Lignan
Essential oilVolatile terpenoid fraction (see adjacent column)
1–3.5%

Essential Oil — Terpenoid Fraction

LimoneneMonoterpene — bright citrus-spicy note; antioxidant
~20%
α-PineneMonoterpene — woody, resinous; bronchodilatory
~15%
β-PineneMonoterpene — piney, fresh green
~10%
δ-3-CareneMonoterpene — sweet, earthy note
~10%
β-CaryophylleneSesquiterpene — analgesic; CB2 receptor agonist
~20%
Germacrene-DSesquiterpene — characteristic pepper aroma
~4%
LinaloolMonoterpenol — floral, calming note
Trace
α-TerpineolMonoterpenol — antifungal; oxidised pinene derivative
Trace

Plant Properties — Pharmacodynamics

8 plant properties + 4 essential oil properties documented across 18 primary references from NCBI PubMed and primary literature.

12 Properties Analgesic Bioavailability Anticancer
🔥

Analgesic & Antipyretic

Documented analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic activity in experimental models, confirmed in a 2021 pharmacognosy study evaluating piperine specifically.[1]

🎯

TRPV1 / TRPA1 Agonist

Piperine activates both TRPV1 and TRPA1 vanilloid receptors in sensory neurons — the molecular basis of its pungency and peripheral analgesic action, confirmed in human receptor studies.[2] [3]

🛡️

Anti-Inflammatory

Piper nigrum fruit extract demonstrates anti-inflammatory activity in multiple preclinical models, with piperine identified as a key mediator of this effect.[4]

⬆️

Bioavailability Enhancer

Piperine inhibits multiple metabolising enzymes (CYPs, P-gp) and increases intestinal absorptive surface area, enhancing the bioavailability of co-administered drugs and nutrients — the most clinically utilised property.[5] [6] [7] [8]

🧱

Membrane Permeabiliser

Piperine is absorbed very rapidly through the intestinal barrier, and simultaneously increases the permeability of various drugs across biological membranes — a distinct mechanism from enzyme inhibition alone.[10]

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Antioxidant

Antioxidant activity is generated primarily during hepatic first-pass metabolism of piperine. The essential oil also demonstrates in vitro antioxidant activity independent of the alkaloid fraction.[15]

⚡

Antiepileptic / Anticonvulsant

Piperine acts as a CNS depressant with anticonvulsant and antiepileptic properties documented in preclinical pharmacological studies. Epilepsy is listed as a phytotherapy indication in the primary clinical literature.

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Anticancer (Pellitorine)

Pellitorine, an alkamide co-present in the fruit, shows cytotoxicity against HL-60 leukaemia and MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines in vitro. Piperine itself inhibits nicotine-induced cancer cell migration and protects DNA from oxidative damage.[11] [12]

Essential Oil Properties

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Sympathomimetic / Tonic

Inhalation of black pepper essential oil increases plasma adrenaline (epinephrine) concentration in healthy adults — a documented sympathomimetic effect with energising and alertness implications.[14]

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Analgesic (β-Caryophyllene)

The essential oil's analgesic action is primarily attributed to β-caryophyllene (~20%), a sesquiterpene with CB2 receptor partial agonist activity. Applied topically, it relieves musculoskeletal and articular pain.

🛡️

Antioxidant (EO)

Pepper essential oil and its oleoresin demonstrate significant in vitro antioxidant activity, attributable to the combined terpene fraction rather than any single component.[15]

🦟

Mosquito Repellent

The essential oil demonstrates repellent activity against Aedes aegypti and three other mosquito vectors in documented laboratory trials — relevant for topical insect repellent formulations.[16]

Clinical Applications

Clinical Indications

Indications drawn from primary phytotherapy literature and peer-reviewed pharmacology. EO indications are distinct from whole-plant indications.

💊
Phytotherapy — Whole Plant
Oral use · Fruit / extract
  • Bioavailability enhancement: Co-administration with drugs and nutraceuticals to increase their plasma concentrations by inhibiting CYP enzymes and P-gp.[5] [8]
  • Epilepsy: Documented as a phytotherapy indication; piperine's anticonvulsant and antiepileptic properties are pharmacologically supported in preclinical models.
  • Pain & inflammation: Analgesic and anti-inflammatory use supported across multiple studies evaluating piperine via TRPV1/TRPA1 mechanisms.[1] [4]
🌿
Essential Oil Aromatherapy
Inhalation · Topical application
  • Musculoskeletal & articular pain: Topical application via diluted essential oil for joint and muscle pain — via β-caryophyllene's CB2 agonist and anti-inflammatory activity.
  • Smoking cessation / nicotine craving: Inhalation of pepper oil reduces acute smoking withdrawal symptoms and nicotine craving in controlled human studies.[17] [18]
  • Fatigue / alertness: Sympathomimetic effect via adrenaline elevation documented on inhalation — used as a stimulating aromatic.[14]
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Preclinical Findings (Investigational)
In vitro / animal models · Not established clinically
  • Anticancer (pellitorine): Cytotoxicity against HL-60 and MCF-7 cell lines in vitro; DNA protective and anti-migration effects against nicotine-induced cancer cells.[11] [12]
  • Antidiabetic (P. longum root): Root aqueous extract reduces blood glucose and lipids in STZ-induced diabetic rats — preclinical only.[13]
🦟
Other Documented Uses
Non-traditional · Emerging applications
  • Insect repellent: Essential oil demonstrated repellency against four mosquito vectors including Aedes aegypti in tropical medicine laboratory studies.[16]
  • Ibuprofen potentiation: Piperine co-administration measurably increases plasma ibuprofen concentration — documented pharmacokinetic interaction with analgesic implications.[9]
Pharmacodynamics

Mode of Action

The source documents a single consolidated mechanism: sympathomimetic for the essential oil. The breadth of piperine's mechanisms spans four distinct molecular systems.

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CYP450 & P-gp Inhibition

Piperine competitively inhibits CYP3A4, CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and the P-glycoprotein efflux pump — the dominant enzymes of hepatic and intestinal first-pass drug metabolism. By reducing the metabolic clearance of co-administered compounds, it increases their bioavailability and plasma half-life. This is the mechanism underlying the commercial rationale for BioPerine as a co-factor.[5] [7]

🔬

Intestinal Membrane Remodelling

At the brush-border level, piperine modifies membrane phospholipid dynamics, increases fluidity, and stimulates cytoskeletal protein synthesis — physically expanding the absorptive surface area of the small intestine. This structural mechanism is measurable via electron microscopy and operates independently of enzyme inhibition.[6] [10]

⚡

TRPV1 & TRPA1 Receptor Activation

Piperine is a direct agonist of TRPV1 (the capsaicin receptor) and TRPA1 (the mustard oil receptor), both expressed in primary nociceptive neurons. Activation initially produces pungency and pain, followed by receptor desensitisation — explaining the net analgesic outcome of sustained or repeated exposure. This mechanism also accounts for the antipyretic and anti-inflammatory effects.[2] [3]

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Sympathomimetic via Adrenaline Release (EO)

The essential oil, when inhaled, increases plasma adrenaline (epinephrine) concentration in healthy adults — a sympathomimetic effect that elevates alertness, heart rate, and metabolic tone. The olfactory–sympathetic axis is believed to mediate this response. This is also the postulated mechanism behind nicotine-craving reduction: the sensory stimulation of the airway mimics the respiratory cues of smoking.[14]

Comparative Analysis

Piperine vs BioPerine®

Raw extract alkaloid versus the patented, standardised 95% concentrate — what the evidence actually supports and when standardisation matters.

Criterion Crude Piperine Powder BioPerine® (Sabinsa)
Piperine Content Variable — typically 5–10% in whole pepper; ~95% in crude extracts but not guaranteed or tested per batch ≥ 95% piperine guaranteed — standardised and batch-tested by Sabinsa Corporation under cGMP conditions
Human Clinical Data Sparse; most bioavailability trials use standardised extracts rather than crude piperine powder — making direct equivalence difficult to establish Multiple human RCTs supporting bioavailability enhancement of curcumin, coenzyme Q10, selenium, and beta-carotene; the standard for clinical claims
Dosing Accuracy ⚠ Unreliable — piperine content of unlabelled "piperine powder" varies widely; batch inconsistency makes therapeutic dosing impossible to verify Precise — typical encapsulated dose 5–20 mg per capsule; designed for reproducible co-administration with target nutrients
Cost Lower — crude extracts are widely available at lower price points; suitable where exact standardisation is not required Higher — premium for the standardisation, IP, and clinical substantiation; typically incorporated into multi-ingredient formulations
Drug Interaction Risk ⚠ Unpredictable — without known piperine content, interaction risk with co-administered medications cannot be assessed ⚠ Quantifiable but real — CYP450 inhibition at standard doses is well-characterised; prescribers can assess risk based on known piperine dose
Third-Party Testing Usually absent unless purchased from a cGMP-certified manufacturer explicitly providing COA documentation Standard — Sabinsa provides COA; brands licensing BioPerine must maintain the standardisation claim
Best Use Case Culinary enrichment; general antioxidant support; budget supplement formulations where bioavailability claims are not made Clinical co-supplementation with curcumin, CoQ10, or other poorly bioavailable nutraceuticals where reproducible enhancement is the goal

Clinical Bottom Line

For clinical applications where bioavailability enhancement is the therapeutic goal — co-administration with curcumin, CoQ10, or poorly-absorbed drugs — BioPerine® offers the only genuinely reproducible and clinically substantiated option. Crude piperine preparations may be adequate for culinary or general wellness contexts, but the unpredictable piperine content makes them unsuitable for precise therapeutic use. In either case, patients on narrow-therapeutic-index medications should discuss piperine supplementation with a prescriber before use, given the real and well-documented CYP450 interaction risk.

Clinical Safety

Safety, Interactions & Precautions

Piperine's mechanism as an enzyme inhibitor creates genuine pharmacokinetic interactions. These are dose-dependent and clinically significant at supplement doses.

⚠️

Adverse Effects

  • Dermatosis: Topical contact with concentrated pepper preparations or essential oil may cause skin irritation or contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals. Always dilute essential oil before skin application.
  • Gastralgias: High oral doses of piperine may cause gastric discomfort, heartburn, or gastrointestinal irritation — particularly in individuals with pre-existing reflux or peptic ulcer disease.
  • Convulsions (high dose): Despite anticonvulsant properties at therapeutic doses, very high doses of piperine have been associated with convulsive risk in animal models. Therapeutic doses are far below this threshold.
🚫

Contraindications & Drug Interactions

  • CYP450 drug interactions: Piperine inhibits CYP3A4, CYP1A1, CYP1A2. Patients on ciclosporin, tacrolimus, warfarin, statins, antiepileptics, or any narrow-TI drug should avoid piperine supplements without prescriber guidance.[5]
  • Ibuprofen & NSAIDs: Piperine measurably increases plasma ibuprofen concentration — an intentional effect in some contexts but a risk of NSAID toxicity if not managed.[9]
  • Pregnancy: Insufficient safety data at supplement doses. Culinary use is considered safe; high-dose piperine supplementation should be avoided in pregnancy.
  • Pre-existing GI conditions: Use with caution in reflux, GERD, or peptic ulcer disease; piperine can exacerbate mucosal irritation.
Clinical Disclaimer: This monograph is for educational and professional reference only. It does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment guidance. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider before initiating any phytotherapeutic regimen, particularly if you are taking prescription medications, are pregnant, or have existing health conditions.
Common Questions

Frequently Asked Questions

What does piperine do in the body?
Piperine, the primary alkaloid in black pepper (5–10% of dry fruit weight), is absorbed very rapidly through the intestinal barrier and exerts multiple effects: it inhibits drug-metabolising enzymes (CYP450s, P-glycoprotein), modifies intestinal membrane dynamics to increase surface area for absorption, activates TRPV1 and TRPA1 vanilloid receptors producing an analgesic effect, and acts as a central nervous system depressant with anticonvulsant properties.
How does black pepper increase curcumin absorption?
Piperine enhances curcumin bioavailability by inhibiting hepatic and intestinal enzymes that would otherwise rapidly metabolise curcumin on first pass. It also induces alterations in intestinal brush-border membrane fluidity, increasing the absorptive surface area of the small intestine. The classic combination is 20 mg piperine per gram of curcumin, documented to increase curcumin plasma concentration significantly in human studies.
What is the difference between piperine and BioPerine?
BioPerine is a patented, standardised extract of Piper nigrum fruit standardised to a minimum 95% piperine content, produced by Sabinsa Corporation. Standard black pepper fruit contains 5–10% piperine by weight and is not standardised. BioPerine offers guaranteed potency, consistent dosing (typically 5–20 mg per capsule), and documented human clinical data supporting its bioavailability-enhancing effects. Crude piperine powder is cheaper but varies in purity and is less studied in clinical trials.
Can black pepper essential oil help with smoking cessation?
Clinical data suggest yes: inhalation of black pepper essential oil has been shown to reduce acute nicotine craving in human studies. A 1994 study published in Drug and Alcohol Dependence found that vapour from black pepper extract reduced smoking withdrawal symptoms. A 2013 small comparison study confirmed aromatherapy with pepper oil reduced nicotine craving on a US campus. The mechanism is thought to involve sensory stimulation of the respiratory tract mimicking smoking cues.
Is black pepper an anticonvulsant?
Yes, preclinically. Piperine has documented antiepileptic and anticonvulsant properties and acts as a central nervous system depressant. Epilepsy is listed among the phytotherapy indications in primary literature. These findings are based primarily on preclinical pharmacological studies; large-scale human RCTs in epilepsy are lacking, and black pepper should not replace established antiepileptic drugs without medical supervision.
What part of the black pepper plant is used medicinally?
The primary part used is the fruit (the berry), processed differently depending on the desired product: picked unripe and dried for black pepper (highest piperine), stripped of its pericarp at full maturity for white pepper (lower piperine), or preserved fresh or freeze-dried for green pepper. The essential oil is steam-distilled from the dried unripe fruit and contains no piperine — only volatile terpenes. The root has been studied for antidiabetic properties (Piper longum root specifically) but is not a standard commercial preparation.
Does black pepper interact with medications?
Yes — this is clinically significant. Piperine inhibits CYP3A4, CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and P-glycoprotein, which are key enzymes and transporters responsible for metabolising many pharmaceutical drugs. This can increase plasma concentrations of drugs to potentially toxic levels. Documented interactions include ibuprofen. Patients on narrow-therapeutic-index drugs (warfarin, ciclosporin, phenytoin, statins) should use piperine supplements only under medical supervision.
What is pellitorine in black pepper?
Pellitorine is an alkamide found in Piper nigrum with documented anticancer activity. Preclinical research has shown cytotoxic effects against HL-60 (leukaemia) and MCF-7 (breast cancer) cell lines. It also appears to inhibit nicotine-induced cancer cell migration and protect DNA against hydrogen peroxide-induced damage. Pellitorine research is currently at the in vitro and preclinical stage; no clinical oncology trials have been completed in humans.
Primary Literature

Bibliography

↑ 1. Dhargawe N, Mahakalkar S, Mohod B, Raj JP. Evaluation of Analgesic, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antipyretic Activity of Piperine: An Experimental Study. Pharmacognosy Research. 2021;12(2):176–180.
↑ 2. Okumura Y, Narukawa M, Iwasaki Y, et al. Activation of TRPV1 and TRPA1 by black pepper components. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2010;74(5):1068–1072.
↑ 3. McNamara FN, Randall A, Gunthorpe MJ. Effects of piperine, the pungent component of black pepper, at the human vanilloid receptor (TRPV1). Br J Pharmacol. 2005 Mar;144(6):781–90. PubMed PMID:15685214 →
↑ 4. Tasleem F, Azhar I, Ali SN, Perveen S, Mahmood ZA. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of Piper nigrum L. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2014 Sep;7S1:S461–8. PubMed PMID:25312168 →
↑ 5. Damanhouri Z, Ahmad A. A Review on Therapeutic Potential of Piper nigrum L. (Black Pepper): The King of Spices. Medicinal & Aromatic Plants. 2014;3:161.
↑ 6. Khajuria A, Thusu N, Zutshi U. Piperine modulates permeability characteristics of intestine by inducing alterations in membrane dynamics. Phytomedicine. 2002 Apr;9(3):224–31. PubMed PMID:12046863 →
↑ 7. Zhang W, Zheng Q, Song M, et al. A review on the bioavailability, bio-efficacies and novel delivery systems for piperine. Food Funct. 2021 Oct 4;12(19):8867–8881. PubMed PMID:34528635 →
↑ 8. Srinivasan K. Black pepper and its pungent principle-piperine: a review of diverse physiological effects. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2007;47(8):735–48. PubMed PMID:17987447 →
↑ 9. Venkatesh S, Durga KD, Padmavathi Y, Reddy BM, Mullangi R. Influence of piperine on ibuprofen induced antinociception and its pharmacokinetics. Arzneimittelforschung. 2011;61(9):506–9. PubMed PMID:22029226 →
↑ 10. Khajuria A, Zutshi U, Bedi KL. Permeability characteristics of piperine on oral absorption — an active alkaloid from peppers and a bioavailability enhancer. Indian J Exp Biol. 1998 Jan;36(1):46–50. PubMed PMID:9536651 →
↑ 11. Ee GCL, Lim CM, Rahmani M, Shaari K, Bong CFJ. Pellitorine, a Potential Anti-Cancer Lead Compound against HL60 and MCT-7 Cell Lines and Microbial Transformation of Piperine from Piper Nigrum. Molecules. 2010;15(4):2398–2404. PubMed PMID:20428051 →
↑ 12. Jayakumar R, Kanthimathi MS. Dietary spices protect against hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA damage and inhibit nicotine-induced cancer cell migration. Food Chemistry. 2012;134(3):1580–1584.
↑ 13. Nabi SA, Kasetti RB, Sirasanagandla S, et al. Antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic activity of Piper longum root aqueous extract in STZ induced diabetic rats. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2013 Feb 18;13(1):37. PubMed PMID:23414307 →
↑ 14. Haze S, Sakai K, Gozu Y. Effects of fragrance inhalation on sympathetic activity in normal adults. Jpn J Pharmacol. 2002 Nov;90(3):247–53. PubMed PMID:12499579 →
↑ 15. Kapoor IP, Singh B, Singh G, et al. Chemistry and in vitro antioxidant activity of volatile oil and oleoresins of black pepper (Piper nigrum). J Agric Food Chem. 2009 Jun 24;57(12):5358–64. PubMed PMID:19456163 →
↑ 16. Tawatsin A, Asavadachanukorn P, Thavara U, et al. Repellency of essential oils extracted from plants in Thailand against four mosquito vectors. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2006 Sep;37(5):915–31. PubMed PMID:17333734 →
↑ 17. Rose JE, Behm FM. Inhalation of vapor from black pepper extract reduces smoking withdrawal symptoms. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1994 Feb;34(3):225–9. PubMed PMID:8033760 →
↑ 18. Cordell B, Buckle J. The effects of aromatherapy on nicotine craving on a US campus: A small comparison study. J Altern Complement Med. 2013;19(8):709–713.

Additional Reference Literature

Bruneton J. Pharmacognosie, Phytochimie, Plantes médicinales. Ed. Tec et Doc. 1997. p. 697.
Ahmad N, Fazal H, Abbasi BH, Farooq S, Ali M, Khan MA. Biological role of Piper nigrum L. (Black pepper): A review. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 2012;2(3 Suppl):S1945–S1953. DOI 10.1016/S2221-1691(12)60524-3 →
Perera PK. Pharmacognostical, Physico-Chemical and Phytochemical Evaluation for Standardization of Three Piper Species Used in Ayurvedic Medicine. Asian Journal of Pharmacognosy. 2019. Academia.edu →