Pharmacognosy · Antidiabetic · True Cinnamon

Ceylon Cinnamon

Cinnamomum verum J. Presl (syn. Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume) — the original "true cinnamon" of Sri Lanka, whose cinnamaldehyde-rich bark and essential oil are studied for antidiabetic, broad-spectrum antimicrobial and antioxidant effects.

38 Primary Refs
12 Properties
Bark Parts Used
✦ Researched
Last Updated
Primary Source Wikiphyto · NCBI PubMed
Family Lauraceae
French Pharmacopoeia List A (Scraped Stem Bark)

Biological Overview

Cinnamomum verum is a small tree, 6 to 12 meters tall, with persistent leaves, often kept as a shrub through pruning. Its opposite leaves smell of clove, are ovate with one central vein and two secondary veins that don't reach the leaf tip, and the bark is thick and rough. Native to India, it is now cultivated in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and has been introduced to the Indian Ocean islands and Southeast Asian tropical forests.

FamilyLauraceae
Tree Height6–12 m
Bark Essential Oil0.5–2%
Cinnamaldehyde (Bark EO)65–80%
Botanical Classification

Taxonomy & Identification

Latin Name
Cinnamomum verum J. Presl.
Synonym
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume
Family
Lauraceae
Common Names
Ceylon Cinnamon, True Cinnamon
Parts Used
Dried inner bark, essential oil
Origin
India, cultivated in Sri Lanka

⚠ Not to Be Confused With a Similarly-Named Species

A very different West Indies species, Canella winterana (L.) Gaertn. (syn. Canella alba, Winterana canella), family Canellaceae, is rich in eugenol, 1,8-cineole, beta-caryophyllene and beta-pinene. Despite superficial naming overlap in some regions, it is botanically unrelated to Ceylon cinnamon and is not covered by this monograph.

Ethnobotany & Traditional Use

History & Tradition

Bark harvested from pruned shoots is set to ferment for 24 hours, after which the inner bark can be easily separated from the outer bark — the traditional processing method that produces the familiar cinnamon "quill."

Modern clinical interest accelerated in the early 2000s with controlled trials establishing measurable effects on blood glucose and lipids in people with type 2 diabetes, and has since expanded into a substantial body of research on the essential oil's broad antimicrobial and antifungal activity.

Research Timeline

2003 — Glucose & Lipid Effects Established

Khan et al., Diabetes Care

A controlled trial finds cinnamon improves glucose and lipid markers in people with type 2 diabetes. [4]

2010 — HbA1c & Blood Pressure Trial

Akilen et al., Diabet Med

A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial finds favorable effects on glycated hemoglobin and blood pressure in multi-ethnic type 2 diabetic patients. [5]

2014 — Neuroprotective Mechanism (Parkinson's)

Khasnavis & Pahan, J Neuroimmune Pharmacol

Cinnamon treatment is found to upregulate the neuroprotective proteins Parkin and DJ-1, protecting dopaminergic neurons in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. [9]

2019 — Randomized Metabolic Trial

Zare et al., Clin Nutr

A randomized controlled trial finds 500 mg of cinnamon bark powder twice daily for 3 months improves anthropometric, glycemic and lipid parameters in type 2 diabetes. [33]

The Key Molecule

Cinnamaldehyde — Deep Dive

Making up 65 to 80% of bark essential oil, cinnamaldehyde is the compound behind most of Ceylon cinnamon's documented antidiabetic and antimicrobial activity.

🩸

Antidiabetic Activity

Cinnamaldehyde itself is documented as an antidiabetic agent, distinct from but complementary to the whole bark's broader glycemic effects. [28]

🦠

Very Broad-Spectrum Antibacterial

Cinnamaldehyde-driven bacteriostatic activity extends to roughly 98% of tested gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. [13][14]

⚠️

Efflux Pump Induction

Cinnamaldehyde induces expression of four different efflux pumps in Pseudomonas aeruginosa — a nuance that complicates its otherwise-documented synergy with antibiotics. [21]

💤

CNS & Cardiorespiratory Activity

Cinnamaldehyde is a central nervous system sedative and a cardiac and respiratory stimulant — the same pharmacological activity underlying the essential oil's documented arrhythmia risk.

Pharmaceutical Preparations

Parts Used & Available Forms

The dried inner bark and its essential oil are the parts used, with a separate essential oil available from the leaves.

Dried Bark Powder

Ground inner bark, stripped of outer cork and underlying parenchyma — the form used in most clinical trials.

Bark Powder

Mother Tincture

Mother tincture of Cinnamomum zeylanicum bark, used in traditional phytotherapeutic practice.

Tincture

Essential Oil (Bark or Leaf)

Distinct essential oils are distilled from the bark and the leaves, with very different chemical profiles and uses.

Essential Oil

Clinical Dosimetry

Dosages

The general usual dose, alongside the specific regimen used in a featured randomized controlled trial.

Context Dose Notes
Usual (Antidiabetic) 1–6 g bark/day General range cited for antidiabetic effect
Randomized Trial (Type 2 Diabetes) 500 mg bark powder, 2×/day for 3 months Improved anthropometric, glycemic & lipid parameters, more so at higher initial BMI [33]
Phytochemistry

Composition

Documented composition of the bark and its essential oil, plus the distinct composition of the leaf essential oil.

General Bark Composition

StarchBark component
Present
Polycyclic DiterpenesBark component
Present
Procyanidolic OligomersIncluding cinnamtanin
Present
HydroxychalconeDocumented bark component
Present
Essential Oil (Bark)Overall bark yield
0.5–2%

Bark Essential Oil

Trans-CinnamaldehydePlus (Z)-cinnamaldehyde & trans-2-methoxycinnamaldehyde (traces)
65–80%
EugenolPhenol fraction
5–10%
Cinnamyl AcetateTerpenic ester
~5%
Beta-CaryophylleneSesquiterpene
~6%
LinaloolMonoterpenol
3–5%

Leaf Essential Oil

EugenolDominant phenol — inverted ratio vs. bark oil
70–85%
Trans-CinnamaldehydeMinor component in leaf oil
<3%
LinaloolMonoterpenol
1–5%
Beta-CaryophylleneSesquiterpene
1–7%
SafroleEther component
Present

Properties — Pharmacodynamics

Documented across the bark and its essential oil, anchored in cinnamaldehyde pharmacology.

12 Properties Antidiabetic Antimicrobial Neuroprotective
🩸

Antidiabetic (Bark)

1–6g bark/day reduces glycemia, triglycerides, LDL and total cholesterol in type 2 diabetes; hydro-alcoholic extract decreases postprandial hyperglycemia. [3][4][6]

📉

Reduces Glycated Hemoglobin

Favorable activity on HbA1c documented in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial in multi-ethnic type 2 diabetic patients. [5]

🧬

Reduces Protein Glycation

Cinnamon bark proanthocyanidins act as reactive carbonyl scavengers, preventing formation of advanced glycation end-products. [7]

🩹

Wound-Healing (Diabetic Model)

Accelerates wound healing in diabetic mice, inducing fibroblast proliferation, collagen deposition, and improved re-epithelialization and keratin biosynthesis. [8]

🧠

Neuroprotective (Parkinson's Potential)

Upregulates the neuroprotective proteins Parkin and DJ-1, protecting dopaminergic neurons in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. [9][10]

🫀

Antihypertensive

Acute and chronic antihypertensive effects documented in an L-NAME-induced hypertension model. [11]

🩺

Anti-Ulcer & Anti-H. pylori (Bark)

Prevents stomach ulcer and shows documented anti-Helicobacter pylori activity. [1][2]

🦠

Broad-Spectrum Antibacterial (EO)

Bacteriostatic against roughly 98% of tested gram-positive and gram-negative organisms, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Brucella abortus, E. coli O157:H7 and Borrelia burgdorferi biofilms. [13][20]

🍄

Antifungal, Including Fluconazole-Resistant Candida (EO)

Documented activity against Candida albicans and fluconazole-resistant Candida species, plus Aspergillus. [22][24]

🔥

Anti-Inflammatory (EO)

Documented anti-inflammatory activity from the essential oil and its constituents. [27]

🍽️

Appetite Modulation via Inhalation (EO)

Inhaled trans-cinnamaldehyde increases food consumption, suggesting a possible non-invasive route for treating anorexia or eating disorders in the elderly. [29][30]

💤

CNS & Cardiorespiratory Effects (EO)

Cinnamaldehyde acts as a central nervous system sedative and a cardiac and respiratory stimulant; the essential oil is also documented as capable of provoking arrhythmias.

Clinical Applications

Clinical Indications

Traditional and researched uses for the whole plant, plus a distinct indication set specific to the essential oil.

🩹
Digestive & General
Fatigue, Infection & Gastritis
  • Digestive troubles: documented traditional indication.
  • Fatigue, asthenia: documented traditional indication.
  • Flu & infectious disease: documented traditional indication.
  • Nervous depression: documented traditional indication.
  • Gastritis & H. pylori ulcers: documented indication.
🩸
Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome
Primary Documented Indication
  • Diabetes: may help reduce oral antidiabetic medication needs and complications. [31]
  • Metabolic syndrome: documented indication. [32]
  • RCT highlight: 500mg bark powder 2×/day for 3 months improved BMI, visceral fat, HbA1c, insulinemia, insulin resistance, total cholesterol, LDL-c and HDL-c (triglycerides unchanged); effects greater at higher initial BMI (≥27). [33]
🌸
Gynecological
Dysmenorrhea & Menstrual Delay
  • Delayed menstruation: documented traditional indication.
  • Dysmenorrhea: more effective than placebo, less than ibuprofen, no adverse effects in trials. [34][35][36]
  • Endometriosis: flagged uncertain ("?") in the primary source. [37]
  • Male functional impotence: documented traditional indication.
💧
Essential Oil
Aromatherapy-Specific Indications
  • Urinary, genital & intestinal infections: including colibacillosis, leucorrhea/vaginitis (avoid local route), gastroenteritis, infectious colitis, amoebiasis.
  • Bronchial, ENT & dental infections: sore throat, pharyngitis, alveolar pyorrhea, canker sores (reduced quantity).
  • Dysmenorrhea by inhalation: combined with true lavender EO, reduces prostaglandin E2. [38]
  • Asthenia, depression: documented indication.
Pharmacodynamics

Mode of Action

Documented mechanisms drawn directly from the underlying cited research.

🧪

Pancreatic Alpha-Amylase Inhibition

Cinnamon bark extract inhibits human pancreatic amylase, a documented mechanism contributing to its antidiabetic activity. [3]

🧬

Advanced Glycation End-Product Scavenging

Bark proanthocyanidins act as reactive carbonyl scavengers, preventing formation of advanced glycation end-products implicated in diabetic complications. [7]

🦠

Cinnamaldehyde Antibacterial Mechanism

Broad-spectrum bacteriostatic action, though cinnamaldehyde also induces expression of four efflux pumps in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a nuance that can offset antibiotic synergy against that organism. [21]

🧠

Parkin & DJ-1 Protein Upregulation

Cinnamon upregulates the neuroprotective Parkin and DJ-1 proteins that protect dopaminergic neurons; sodium benzoate, a metabolite of cinnamon, independently upregulates DJ-1 in astrocytes and neurons. [9][10]

Clinical Safety

Safety, Interactions & Precautions

The essential oil carries genuine risks distinct from the bark powder used in most dietary supplements and clinical trials.

⚠ Essential Oil — Absolute Contraindications

Do Not Use the Essential Oil in These Situations

  • Pregnancy & young children: the essential oil is explicitly forbidden in pregnant women and young children, per the primary source.
  • Cardiac arrhythmia risk: the essential oil is documented as capable of provoking arrhythmias.
  • Undiluted topical use: the essential oil is dermocaustic — avoid local, undiluted application to skin.
⚠️

Adverse Effects

  • Essential oil gastritis risk: dilute, combine with a carrier, and use low doses to reduce gastric irritation.
  • Bark powder: dysmenorrhea trials using bark powder reported no adverse effects. [34][35][36]
🚫

Interactions & Considerations

  • Antibiotic synergy is inconsistent: the essential oil shows antibiotic synergy in some studies, but cinnamaldehyde induces bacterial efflux pump expression against Pseudomonas aeruginosa specifically, which can work against that synergy. [21]
  • Regulatory status: the scraped stem bark (Ceylon cinnamon) is listed in French Pharmacopoeia List A.
Clinical Disclaimer: This monograph is for educational and professional reference only. It does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment guidance. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider before initiating any phytotherapeutic regimen, particularly if you are pregnant, considering essential oil use, or have existing health conditions.
Common Questions

Frequently Asked Questions

What is Ceylon cinnamon and how is it different from regular cinnamon?
Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum, syn. Cinnamomum zeylanicum) is often called "true cinnamon." It is a distinct species from the more common Cassia cinnamon sold in most supermarkets, and is also unrelated to a very different West Indies species, Canella winterana, which is sometimes confused with it despite sharing no botanical relationship.
Which part of the cinnamon plant is used medicinally?
The dried inner bark, stripped of its outer cork layer (the familiar cinnamon "quill" or stick), is the primary part used, along with essential oil distilled from the bark and, separately, from the leaves.
What is cinnamaldehyde and why does it matter?
Cinnamaldehyde makes up 65 to 80% of Ceylon cinnamon bark essential oil and is considered the primary compound behind the plant's antidiabetic and broad-spectrum antibacterial effects.
Does cinnamon really help with diabetes?
Yes, there is meaningful clinical evidence. Consuming 1 to 6 grams of cinnamon bark per day has been shown to reduce blood glucose, triglycerides, LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol in people with type 2 diabetes. A randomized controlled trial using 500 mg of bark powder twice daily for 3 months found improvements across anthropometric, glycemic and lipid markers, with larger effects in patients with a higher initial body mass index.
Can cinnamon help with period pain (dysmenorrhea)?
Clinical trials found cinnamon bark more effective than placebo, though less effective than ibuprofen, for treating primary dysmenorrhea, with no reported adverse effects in these studies.
Is cinnamon essential oil safe to use?
Not in the same way as the bark powder. The essential oil is documented as potentially causing cardiac arrhythmias, is dermocaustic (irritating when applied undiluted to skin), and is explicitly contraindicated during pregnancy and in young children. These risks are specific to the concentrated essential oil, not the bark powder used in most dietary supplements and clinical trials.
Does cinnamon interact with antibiotics?
The relationship is mixed. Cinnamon essential oil shows synergy with antibiotics against some bacteria, but cinnamaldehyde has also been shown to induce the expression of four different efflux pumps in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a mechanism bacteria use to expel antibiotics, which could reduce antibiotic effectiveness against that particular organism.
Is cinnamon effective against Candida or fungal infections?
Cinnamon essential oil has documented antifungal activity against Candida albicans, including strains resistant to the antifungal drug fluconazole, as well as against Aspergillus species.
Primary Literature

Bibliography

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↑2. Ali SM, Khan AA, Ahmed I, Musaddiq M, Ahmed KS, Polasa H, Venkateswar Rao L, Habibullah CM, Sechi LA, Ahmed N. Antimicrobial activities of Eugenol and Cinnamaldehyde against the human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2005;4:20. DOI: 10.1186/1476-0711-4-20 →
↑3. Ponnusamy S, Ravindran R, Zinjarde S, Bhargava S, Kumar AR. Evaluation of Traditional Indian Antidiabetic Medicinal Plants for Human Pancreatic Amylase Inhibitory Effect In Vitro. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2011;2011:515647. Abstract →
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↑5. Akilen R, Tsiami A, Devendra D, Robinson N. Glycated haemoglobin and blood pressure-lowering effect of cinnamon in multi-ethnic Type 2 diabetic patients in the UK: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial. Diabet Med. 2010 Oct;27(10):1159-67. PubMed PMID:20854384 →
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↑8. Daemi A, Lotfi M, Farahpour MR, Oryan A, Ghayour SJ, Sonboli A. Topical application of Cinnamomum hydroethanolic extract improves wound healing by enhancing re-epithelialization and keratin biosynthesis in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Pharm Biol. 2019 Dec;57(1):799-806. PubMed PMID:31760838 →
↑9. Khasnavis S, Pahan K. Cinnamon treatment upregulates neuroprotective proteins Parkin and DJ-1 and protects dopaminergic neurons in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2014 Sep;9(4):569-81. PubMed PMID:24946862 →
↑10. Khasnavis S, Pahan K. Sodium benzoate, a metabolite of cinnamon and a food additive, upregulates neuroprotective Parkinson disease protein DJ-1 in astrocytes and neurons. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2012 Jun;7(2):424-35.
↑11. Nyadjeu P, Nguelefack-Mbuyo EP, Atsamo AD, Nguelefack TB, Dongmo AB, Kamanyi A. Acute and chronic antihypertensive effects of Cinnamomum zeylanicum stem bark methanol extract in L-NAME-induced hypertensive rats. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2013 Jan 31;13:27. Abstract →
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↑16. Al-Mariri A, Saour G, Hamou R. In vitro antibacterial effects of five volatile oil extracts against intramacrophage Brucella abortus 544. Iran J Med Sci. 2012 Jun;37(2):119-25. PubMed PMID:23115441 →
↑17. Oussalah M, Caillet S, Saucier L, Lacroix M. Inhibitory effects of selected plant essential oils on the growth of four pathogenic bacteria: E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes. Food Control. 2007 May;18(5):414-420. Abstract →
↑18. Ali SM, Khan AA, Ahmed I, Musaddiq M, Ahmed KS, Polasa H, Venkateswar Rao L, Habibullah CM, Sechi LA, Ahmed N. Antimicrobial activities of Eugenol and Cinnamaldehyde against the human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2005;4:20. Full Text →
↑19. Sleha R, Mosio P, Vydrzalova M, Jantovska A, Bostikova V, Mazurova J. In vitro antimicrobial activities of cinnamon bark oil, anethole, carvacrol, eugenol and guaiazulene against Mycoplasma hominis clinical isolates. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub. 2014 Jun;158(2):208-11. PubMed PMID:23128812 →
↑20. Feng J, Zhang S, Shi W, Zubcevik N, Miklossy J, Zhang Y. Selective Essential Oils from Spice or Culinary Herbs Have High Activity against Stationary Phase and Biofilm Borrelia burgdorferi. Front Med (Lausanne). 2017 Oct 11;4:169. PubMed PMID:29075628 →
↑21. Tetard A, Zedet A, Girard C, Plésiat P, Llanes C. Cinnamaldehyde Induces Expression of Efflux Pumps and Multidrug Resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2019 Sep 23;63(10):e01081-19. PubMed PMID:31383658 →
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↑23. Tran H, Graham L, Adukwu EC. In vitro antifungal activity of Cinnamomum zeylanicum bark and leaf essential oils against Candida albicans and Candida auris. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2020;104(20):8911-8924. PubMed PMID:32880694 →
↑24. Pozzatti P, Scheid LA, Spader TB, Atayde ML, Santurio JM, Alves SH. In vitro activity of essential oils extracted from plants used as spices against fluconazole-resistant and fluconazole-susceptible Candida spp. Can J Microbiol. 2008 Nov;54(11):950-6. PubMed PMID:18997851 →
↑25. Pawar VC, Thaker VS. In vitro efficacy of 75 essential oils against Aspergillus niger. Mycoses. 2006;49:316-323.
↑26. Saxena S, Uniyal V, Bhatt RP. Inhibitory effect of essential oils against Trichosporon ovoides causing piedra hair infection. Braz J Microbiol. 2012:1347-1354. PubMed PMID:24031963 →
↑27. Tung YT, Chua MT, Wang SY, Chang ST. Anti-inflammation activities of essential oil and its constituents from indigenous cinnamon (Cinnamomum osmophloeum) twigs. Bioresour Technol. 2008 Jun;99(9):3908-13. PubMed PMID:17826984 →
↑28. Subash Babu P, Prabuseenivasan S, Ignacimuthu S. Cinnamaldehyde--a potential antidiabetic agent. Phytomedicine. 2007 Jan;14(1):15-22. PubMed PMID:17140783 →
↑29. Nguyen NPK, Tran KN, Nguyen LTH, Shin HM, Yang IJ. Effects of Essential Oils and Fragrant Compounds on Appetite: A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci. 2023 Apr 27;24(9):7962. PubMed PMID:37175666 →
↑30. Ogawa K, Ito M. Appetite-enhancing Effects of trans-Cinnamaldehyde, Benzylacetone and 1-Phenyl-2-butanone by Inhalation. Planta Med. 2016 Jan;82(1-2):84-8. PubMed PMID:26756819 →
↑31. Neto JCGL, Damasceno MMC, Ciol MA, de Freitas RWJF, de Araújo MFM, de Souza Teixeira CR, Carvalho GCN, de Siqueira Coelho Lisboa KW, de Souza DF, de Menezes Nogueira J, Marques RLL, Alencar AMPG. Analysis of the effectiveness of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) in the reduction of glycemic and lipidic levels of adults with type 2 diabetes: A study protocol. Medicine (Baltimore). 2020 Jan;99(1):e18553. PubMed PMID:31895796 →
↑32. Shen Y, Jia LN, Honma N, Hosono T, Ariga T, Seki T. Beneficial effects of cinnamon on the metabolic syndrome, inflammation, and pain, and mechanisms underlying these effects — a review. J Tradit Complement Med. 2012 Jan;2(1):27-32. PubMed PMID:24716111 →
↑33. Zare R, Nadjarzadeh A, Zarshenas MM, Shams M, Heydari M. Efficacy of cinnamon in patients with type II diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Clin Nutr. 2019 Apr;38(2):549-556. PubMed PMID:29605574 →
↑34. Jaafarpour M, Hatefi M, Khani A, Khajavikhan J. Comparative effect of cinnamon and Ibuprofen for treatment of primary dysmenorrhea: a randomized double-blind clinical trial. J Clin Diagn Res. 2015;9(4):QC04.
↑35. Jahangirifar M, Taebi M, Dolatian M. The effect of Cinnamon on primary dysmenorrhea: A randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2018;33:56-60. PubMed PMID:30396627 →
↑36. Jaafarpour M, Hatefi M, Najafi F, Khajavikhan J, Khani A. The effect of cinnamon on menstrual bleeding and systemic symptoms with primary dysmenorrhea. Iran Red Crescent Med J. 2015;17(4):e27032. PubMed PMID:26023350 →
↑37. Guo Y, Liu FY, Shen Y, Xu JY, Xie LZ, Li SY, Ding DN, Zhang DQ, Han FJ. Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Dysmenorrhea Caused by Endometriosis: A Review of Utilization and Mechanism. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2021 Jul 2;2021:6663602. PubMed PMID:34306150 →
↑38. Saud NH, Arsyad A, Usman AN, Rafiah S, Ahmad M, Tamar M. The effectiveness of aromatherapies with lavender and cinnamon essential oils on prostaglandin E2 levels in adolescent girls with primary dysmenorrhea. Int J Health Sci. 2022;6(S1):12636-12644. DOI: 10.53730/ijhs.v6nS1.8377 →

Additional Reference Literature

Ranasinghe P, Pigera S, Premakumara GS, Galappaththy P, Constantine GR, Katulanda P. Medicinal properties of 'true' cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum): a systematic review. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2013 Oct 22;13:275. Abstract →
Inouye S, Yamaguchi H, Takizawa T. Screening of the antibacterial effects of a variety of essential oils on respiratory tract pathogens, using a modified dilution assay method. J Infect Chemother. 2001;7:251-254.
Reichling J, Schnitzler P, Suschke U, Saller R. Essential Oils of Aromatic Plants with Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiviral, and Cytotoxic Properties — an Overview. Forsch Komplementmed. 2009;16(2):79-90.
Joshi SC, Padalia RC, Bisht DS, Mathela CS. Terpenoid diversity in the leaf essential oils of Himalayan Lauraceae species. Chem Biodivers. 2009 Sep;6(9):1364-73. PubMed PMID:19774599 →