Clove (Syzygium aromaticum): Evidence, Dosage & Uses

French Pharmacopoeia List A · Myrtaceae

Biological Overview

Syzygium aromaticum is a tree 15 to 20 meters tall with evergreen leaves and pinkish-white flowers grouped in small, compact, branched cymes. The flower bud — the clove of commerce — has a distinctive quadrangular hypanthium topped by a globular head, surrounded by four sepals and made of four petals enclosing numerous curved stamens.

HabitEvergreen Tree, 15–20m

Native RangeMoluccas Islands

Essential Oil Content18–20% (dried bud)

Regulatory StatusFr. Pharmacopoeia List A

Botanical Classification

Taxonomy & Identification

Latin Name: Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merril & LM Perry
Synonyms: Eugenia caryophyllus, Caryophyllus aromaticus
Family: Myrtaceae
Common Names: Clove, Clove Bud, Girofle
Parts Used: Dried flower bud; essential oil of the bud
Cultivation: Zanzibar, Madagascar, Indonesia

Ethnobotany & Traditional Use

History & Tradition

Clove originates from the Moluccas — the historic Spice Islands — and was later cultivated in Zanzibar, Madagascar, and Indonesia, becoming one of the most valuable spices in global trade.

The "clove" of commerce is the flower bud, dried until it develops a characteristic brownish-red color. Traditional use has long distinguished clove bud essential oil from clove leaf essential oil as separate preparations with different profiles.

Modern pharmacology has since characterized eugenol's antiplatelet, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial mechanisms, alongside serious toxicity findings from concentrated oil ingestion. ⁵³²⁴¹⁴²

⚠ Bud Oil vs Leaf Oil

Clove bud essential oil and clove leaf essential oil are different preparations from the same tree — they aren't interchangeable in composition or safety profile.

Timeline

Spice Island Origin

Traditional

Native to the Moluccas, later cultivated in Zanzibar, Madagascar, and Indonesia.

Bud vs Leaf Oil Distinction

Traditional

Clove bud and clove leaf essential oils are distinct preparations with different profiles, a distinction long recognized in traditional use.

Traditional Curing Process

Traditional

The dried flower bud, cured until it develops a characteristic brownish-red color, became known simply as "clove."

Modern Eugenol Pharmacology

20th Century–Present

Eugenol's antiplatelet, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial mechanisms were characterized, alongside serious toxicity findings from concentrated oil ingestion. ⁵⁴¹

The Key Compound

Eugenol — Deep Dive

The phenolic compound behind clove's powerful analgesic and anti-infective reputation — and its documented toxicity at concentrated doses.

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Dominant Phenolic Compound

Clove buds carry an exceptional essential oil content (18–20%), dominated by the phenol eugenol (70–85%), with beta-caryophyllene (~10%) as the second major constituent.

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COX Inhibition & Antiplatelet Activity

Eugenol inhibits cyclooxygenase, reducing prostaglandin synthesis, and acts as an antiplatelet agent. ⁵⁶⁷⁸

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NF-κB Inhibition & Immunomodulation

Eugenol inhibits the NF-κB pathway, contributing to clove's immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory action. ³

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Narrow Margin Between Food Safety and Toxic Dose

Eugenol is recognized as safe in food use, with an estimated lethal dose between 50–500 mg/kg (roughly 3.5–35 mL for a 70 kg adult) — but concentrated essential oil ingestion is a different risk category entirely.

⚠ Concentrated Oil Is Not Food-Safe Dosing

A few milliliters of undiluted oil has caused fatal poisoning in a child.

Eugenol is safe as a food flavoring at typical culinary levels, but concentrated clove essential oil is a different matter — ingesting just 5 to 10 mL caused coma, coagulopathy, and liver damage in a two-year-old child, mimicking severe acetaminophen overdose. ⁴¹⁴²

Pharmaceutical Preparations

Parts Used & Available Forms

The dried flower bud is used medicinally, prepared across three documented forms.

Mother Tincture

Tincture of the flower bud, used at practitioner-directed dilution.

Mother Tincture

Essential Oil

Steam-distilled from the flower bud; the most concentrated and highest-risk form.

Essential Oil · Bud

Whole Flower Bud

The dried bud used as-is, whole or ground.

Whole Bud

Clinical Dosimetry

Dosages

No standardized usual dosage has been established for clove. Given the documented toxicity risk of the concentrated essential oil, dosing should be guided by a qualified practitioner, and internal use of undiluted oil should be avoided without professional supervision.

Phytochemistry

Composition

Flower bud and essential-oil composition — no gemmotherapy (bud/young shoot) fraction is documented for this species.

Flower Bud — Primary Constituents

Essential OilDominated by eugenol (70–85%) and beta-caryophyllene (~10%), plus terpenic, aliphatic, aromatic, and heterocyclic compounds

18–20%

TanninsEugeniin, an ellagitannin

Present

FlavonoidsQuercetol, kaempferol

Present

Phenolcarboxylic AcidsMinor phenolic constituents

Present

Sterols & TriterpenesOleanolic acid, ursolic acid ¹

Present

Essential Oil (Bud) — Primary Constituents

EugenolPropenylphenol, the dominant marker compound

70–85%

AcetyleugenolEster derivative of eugenol

4–15%

beta-CaryophylleneSesquiterpene hydrocarbon

4–15%

Eugenyl AcetateEster constituent

Present

KetonesHeptan-2-one, octan-2-one

Present

Plant Properties — Pharmacodynamics

Eight core pharmacodynamic properties are documented for clove, spanning anti-infective, analgesic, and protective pathways.

8 Properties Anti-infective Analgesic Clinical + Preclinical

🦠

Major Anti-infective

Broad-spectrum antibacterial including MRSA, antiparasitic, antiviral, and antifungal activity. ²

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Antiplatelet

Eugenol acts as an antiplatelet agent across multiple studies. ⁵⁶⁷⁸

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Anti-inflammatory

Inhibits the NF-κB pathway and COX-2/iNOS expression. ³⁹

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Powerful Analgesic

Strong topical and systemic analgesic effect, notably in the oral cavity. ⁴³⁴

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Gastroprotective

Stimulates gastric mucus production and prevents gastric ulcer formation. ³⁷³⁸

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Hepatoprotective

Reduces carbon tetrachloride toxicity via induction of phase II detoxification enzymes. ³²

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Anticonvulsant

Demonstrated anticonvulsant activity in animal models. ³⁵³⁶

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Anti-Biofilm & Antimicrobial

Effective against resistant bacteria including MRSA and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with biofilm eradication outperforming some antibiotics in laboratory testing. ¹⁶¹⁸²¹

Clinical Applications

Clinical Indications

Clove's best-known use is dental and oral pain relief, extending to digestive, respiratory, and systemic infections primarily through the essential oil.

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Oral & Oropharyngeal Pain

Primary Indication

Dental & Oral Analgesia: a long-used topical remedy for pain in the mouth and oropharynx, with local anesthetic and pulp-cauterizing action.
Oral Infections: abscesses, canker sores, and stomatitis.

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Digestive & Gastric Health

Traditional Indication

Digestive Troubles: diarrhea and dysentery.
Gastritis & Ulcers: including cases associated with Helicobacter pylori. ¹³

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Respiratory & Systemic Infections

Essential-Oil Specific

Respiratory Infections: sore throat, pharyngitis, acute and chronic bronchitis, asthmatiform bronchitis, and sinusitis, with interest specifically in asthma. ³⁹
Broader Infections: malaria, amoebiasis, shingles, Herpes simplex, and fungal skin infections.

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Use Considerations

Traditional / Preliminary

Traditional Labor Aid: 2–3 cloves are traditionally said to help dilate the cervix before childbirth — a use that warrants medical guidance given clove's other documented effects in pregnancy contexts.
Asthenia: traditionally used for intellectual fatigue and sexual asthenia (frigidity, impotence).

Pharmacodynamics

Mode of Action

Clove's effects converge on eugenol's action across prostaglandin synthesis, inflammatory signaling, and smooth muscle activity.

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Antiplatelet via Cyclooxygenase Inhibition

Eugenol inhibits cyclooxygenase, reducing prostaglandin synthesis and contributing to its antiplatelet effect.

🧠

Anticonvulsant & COX-2-Inhibiting Anti-Inflammatory Action

Eugenol is anticonvulsant and anti-inflammatory via COX-2 inhibition, with cancer-preventive activity shown in preclinical research. ³⁶

🌀

Calcium Channel Blockade (Spasmolytic)

Spasmolytic action through calcium channel blockade, producing a parasympatholytic effect on smooth muscle.

🎯

NF-κB Pathway Inhibition

Eugenol inhibits the NF-κB pathway, underlying much of clove's immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activity. ³

Risk Profile

Safety & Interactions

Clove's safety profile hinges entirely on form and dose — food-level eugenol is safe, but concentrated essential oil carries a documented, serious poisoning risk, especially in children.

⚠ Genuine, Serious Risks Specific to This Plant

Read Before Using Clove Essential Oil

Pediatric toxicity: acute intoxication from ingesting 5–10 mL of essential oil in a two-year-old child caused coma, coagulopathy, and liver damage — a syndrome resembling severe acetaminophen overdose. ⁴¹⁴²
Narrow safety margin at concentrated doses: eugenol's estimated lethal dose is 50–500 mg/kg (3.5–35 mL for a 70 kg adult) — though recognized as safe in food use, concentrated essential oil is a different risk category entirely.
Local irritant: irritating to skin and mucous membranes when applied undiluted, given its phenol content.
Warfarin and anticoagulant interaction: avoid combining with anticoagulants; a potential interaction with warfarin specifically has been documented. ⁴⁰

⚠️

Adverse Effects

Pediatric Poisoning Cases: documented fatal and near-fatal cases from oil ingestion in young children, with coma, coagulopathy, and hepatic injury. ⁴¹⁴²
Local Irritation: irritating to skin and mucous membranes given its phenol content.
Narrow Toxic Margin: the estimated lethal dose of eugenol is 50–500 mg/kg body weight.

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Contraindications & Interactions

Anticoagulant Medications: avoid combining, given a documented potential interaction with warfarin. ⁴⁰
Children: essential oil ingestion carries a documented severe risk in young children; keep away from children and never give undiluted oil internally without professional guidance.
Topical Use: dilute before applying to skin, given its irritant potential.

Clinical Disclaimer: This information is for educational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice. Keep clove essential oil away from children, and consult a qualified healthcare provider before internal use, particularly if pregnant or taking anticoagulant medication.

Common Questions

Frequently Asked Questions

What is clove used for?

Clove is used for pain and infection in the mouth and oropharynx, digestive troubles including diarrhea and dysentery, and gastritis or ulcers linked to Helicobacter pylori. The essential oil is additionally used for respiratory infections, arthritis, fungal skin infections, and mouth abscesses or canker sores.

How does clove work?

Eugenol, clove's dominant compound, inhibits cyclooxygenase and reduces prostaglandin synthesis, contributing to its antiplatelet and anti-inflammatory effects. It also inhibits the NF-κB pathway and blocks calcium channels, producing spasmolytic activity.

What is the typical clove dosage?

No standardized usual dosage has been established for clove. Given the documented toxicity risk of the concentrated essential oil, dosing should be guided by a qualified practitioner.

Is clove safe? What's the danger with clove oil?

Eugenol is recognized as safe at typical food-flavoring levels, but concentrated clove essential oil carries a real toxicity risk. Ingesting just 5–10 mL caused coma, coagulopathy, and liver damage in a two-year-old child, in a syndrome resembling severe acetaminophen overdose.

Can clove oil be given to children?

Clove essential oil should never be given to children without professional guidance. Documented case reports describe coma, coagulopathy, and liver damage in a young child after ingesting a small amount of the oil.

Does clove interact with blood thinners?

Yes. Clove should not be combined with anticoagulant medications, and a potential interaction with warfarin specifically has been documented.

What's the difference between clove bud oil and clove leaf oil?

Clove bud essential oil and clove leaf essential oil are distinct preparations from the same tree, and traditional use has long distinguished between them rather than treating them as interchangeable.

Can clove help with tooth pain?

Yes. Clove is a powerful topical analgesic for the oral cavity, with a local anesthetic effect and a pulp-cauterizing action, making it a long-used remedy for dental pain.

Sources

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