Pharmacognosy · Antihypertensive · French Pharmacopoeia Listed

Hibiscus

Hibiscus sabdariffa L. var. ruber — known as Karkadé in Egypt and Bissap in West Africa — a Malvaceae subshrub whose tart red calyces are studied head-to-head against captopril and lisinopril for blood pressure, alongside antidyslipidemic and diuretic effects.

33 Primary Refs
16 Properties
Calyx Parts Used
✦ Researched
Last Updated
Primary Source Wikiphyto · NCBI PubMed · Planta Medica
Family Malvaceae
French Pharmacopoeia · List A

Biological Overview

Hibiscus is a subshrub with large, isolated, long-stalked, lobed leaves. Its flowers carry a five-petaled calyx and a deeply divided epicalyx that turns red and fleshy, surrounding the ovary and persisting long after the petals dry and fall away — this fleshy red structure is the part used in tea.

Life CycleAnnual subshrub
HabitatPantropical
Anthocyanin Content~1.5%
Organic Acid Content15–30%
Botanical Classification

Taxonomy & Identification

Latin Name
Hibiscus sabdariffa L. var. ruber
Family
Malvaceae
Common Names
Karkadé, Bissap, Roselle
Other Names
Pink Tea, Empire Tea, Guinea Sorrel
Parts Used
Dried calyx and epicalyx
Habitat
Native to Angola; pantropical cultivation
Ethnobotany & Traditional Use

History & Tradition

Hibiscus is native to Angola and is now cultivated worldwide across tropical regions, including Sudan, Egypt, Thailand, Mexico, and China. The K'iché Maya of Guatemala use it to treat measles, and it has a long history as an antibacterial remedy in traditional African medicine.

In Senegal and Mali, hibiscus is combined with Combretum micranthum as a traditional hypertension remedy, taken as tablets or a decoction — a pairing that modern clinical trials have since formally tested.

⚠ Evidence Is Genuinely Mixed on Hypertension

Two head-to-head trials found hibiscus comparable to captopril or lisinopril. A separate systematic review concluded there isn't enough reliable evidence to recommend it for primary hypertension. Both findings are presented honestly in this monograph — see Clinical Indications.

Timeline

Traditional Era

Maya & African Medicine

K'iché Maya use for measles; antibacterial use in traditional African medicine.

2004

First Captopril Comparison

Herrera-Arellano et al. publish the first randomized trial comparing hibiscus to captopril.[25]

2007

Lisinopril Comparison

A second randomized trial compares standardized extract to lisinopril.[26]

2010

Systematic Review Pushes Back

A systematic review finds insufficient reliable evidence for hypertension treatment.[27]

The Key Molecule

Delphinidin-3-Sambubioside — Deep Dive

The principal anthocyanin behind both hibiscus tea's deep red color and much of its antihypertensive research.

🔴

Source of the Signature Red Color

Delphinidin-3-sambubioside, alongside delphinidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside, gives the infusion its characteristic wine-red color.

🎯

Direct ACE Inhibition

Demonstrated direct inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity in vitro, a core mechanism behind the plant's blood-pressure effects.[11]

⚗️

Principal Active Compound Class

Anthocyanidins are considered the main phytochemicals behind the antihypertensive and hypocholesterolemic effects, though organic acids and other polyphenols also contribute.[1]

🧪

Distinct From Hibiscus Acid

The plant also contains hibiscus-specific organic acids, including a lactone of allohydroxycitric acid found nowhere else — a separate marker compound from the anthocyanins.

⚠ Standardization Matters

Look for products standardized to anthocyanidin content.

The clinical trials behind hibiscus's antihypertensive reputation used extracts standardized to a specific anthocyanidin content (e.g., 9.6 mg per daily dose) — an unstandardized "hibiscus tea" product may not deliver a comparable amount.

Available Forms

Parts Used & Available Forms

Only the dried calyx and epicalyx are used, and only one traditional galenic form is documented in the primary source — though clinical trials have also tested standardized extracts.

Tisane (Herbal Tea)

The traditional and most common preparation — dried calyces steeped as an infusion or simmered as a decoction.

Dried Calyx · Infusion

Standardized Dry Extract

Used in the captopril- and lisinopril-comparison clinical trials, standardized to anthocyanidin content, typically in tablet form.

Dry Extract · Standardized

Clinical Dosimetry

Dosages

Four documented doses, each tested in a specific randomized human trial.

Form Dose Frequency Duration Tested Notes
Dried Calyces (Infusion) 10 g/day Once daily 4 weeks Standardized to 9.6 mg total anthocyanidins; comparable to 25 mg captopril[25]
Standardized Dry Extract 250 mg/day Once daily 4 weeks Standardized to anthocyanidins; comparable to 10 mg lisinopril[26]
Calyx Extract (Lipid Profile) 1000 mg/day Once daily 3 months Includes 45 mg polyphenols; significantly lowered LDL cholesterol[21]
Tisane (Metabolic Syndrome) Standard infusion Twice daily 21 days Morning and evening; improved weight, blood pressure, and lipid profile in elderly women[28]

These are the specific doses used in the randomized trials cited above, not one single official recommendation. Standardization varies meaningfully between products, so check the label and confirm dosing with a healthcare provider — especially if you take blood pressure medication.

Phytochemistry

Composition

Hibiscus calyces are notably acidic, with a distinctive anthocyanin profile responsible for both color and pharmacology.

Organic Acids (15–30%)

Citric, Malic & Tartaric AcidsMajor organic acid fraction; gives the tart flavor
Major
Hibiscus Acid (Allohydroxycitric Acid Lactone)Specific marker compound, unique to this plant
Marker
Oxalic Acid & Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)Minor organic acid components
Present

Anthocyanins, Flavonoids & Other Constituents

Anthocyanosides (~1.5%)Delphinidin-3-sambubioside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, delphinidine, cyanidin-3-sambubioside
Major
Gossypetine 3-GlucosideFlavonoid; antibacterial activity
Present
Polysaccharides, Mucilages & PectinsAnti-edematous external use
Present
PhytosterolsGeneral phytochemical class
Present

Plant Properties — Pharmacodynamics

16 properties documented, concentrated in cardiovascular, metabolic, and renal domains.

16 Properties Antihypertensive Antidyslipidemic Diuretic
🥤

Refreshing Beverage & Mild Laxative

A refreshing drink at typical strength; a mild laxative effect appears at higher quantities.

🩺

Antihypertensive & Antidyslipidemic

Reduces total cholesterol, LDL-C, and triglycerides while raising HDL-C, without adverse effects in the cited trials.[1]

⚖️

Hypoglycemic & Body Fat Reduction

Documented hypoglycemic activity and reduction of body fat mass.[2]

🫘

Nephroprotective & Antianemic

Documented nephroprotective and antianemic properties alongside the plant's broader metabolic profile.[2]

⚗️

Antioxidant & Anti-Inflammatory

Documented antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, alongside antixerostomic (dry-mouth relieving) properties.[2]

🦠

Antibacterial (Gossypetine)

Antibacterial activity attributed to gossypetine; used in traditional Malian medicine for cystitis.[3][4][5]

🔥

Anti-Inflammatory & Analgesic

Separately documented anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity in experimental models.[6][7]

😌

Antispasmodic (Smooth Muscle)

Demonstrated in rabbit aorta, rat uterus, guinea pig trachea, and rat diaphragm; relaxes uterine muscle.[8]

💧

Diuretic & Potassium-Sparing

Natriuretic and potassium-sparing via modulation of aldosterone activity, likely combined with nitric-oxide-mediated renal vascular relaxation.[9][10]

🎯

ACE-Inhibiting Antihypertensive

Flavones and anthocyanins inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), with supporting evidence across six separate references, including early in vitro and in vivo cardioprotective data.[11][12][13][14][15][16]

🌿

Synergy With Other Plants

Effectiveness is enhanced when combined with Combretum micranthum (comparable to captopril over a 6-month follow-up) or Olea europaea.[17][18][19][20]

🩸

Hypocholesterolemic (Leaf)

Documented especially for the leaf; a randomized trial found a polyphenol-rich calyx extract significantly lowered LDL-C over three months.[22][21]

🟢

Cholagogue & Anthelminthic

Documented cholagogue and anthelminthic (anti-parasitic) activity for the plant.

🩹

Antiphlogistic & Anti-Edematous

Mucilage content supports an antiphlogistic and anti-edematous effect in external (topical) use.

🔬

Related Species
Hepatoprotective (H. cannabinus)

An aqueous leaf extract of Hibiscus cannabinus — a related but distinct species, not H. sabdariffa — protects the liver against hepatotoxins in experimental models.

🔬

Related Species
Antidiabetic (H. noldea)

An aqueous extract of Hibiscus noldea — also a distinct related species — prevents insulin resistance and protects pancreatic islets from dexamethasone damage in rats.[23]

Clinical Applications

Clinical Indications

From traditional skin and respiratory uses to the genuinely contested question of hypertension treatment.

🩹
Skin & Allergic Conditions
Traditional Use
  • Weeping eczema and allergies.
🤧
Respiratory & Urinary Conditions
Traditional Use
  • Colds and upper respiratory tract inflammation.
  • Colibacillosis, urinary infections, and renal insufficiency.
❓
Hypertension
Evidence Is Mixed
  • A 2019 Iraqi multicentric study of 121 displaced hypertensive patients whose medical treatment had been interrupted found a hibiscus decoction effective. [24]
  • 10 g/day infusion (9.6 mg anthocyanidins): comparable to 25 mg captopril. [25]
  • 250 mg/day standardized dry extract: comparable to 10 mg lisinopril. [26]
  • However, a systematic review found no reliable evidence to recommend hibiscus for treating primary hypertension in adults. [27]
⚖️
Metabolic Syndrome
Better-Supported
  • 21-day tisane regimen (morning and evening) improved weight, blood pressure, fasting glucose, lipid profile, nitric oxide levels, and cortisol in elderly women. [28]
  • A meta-analysis suggests hibiscus improves cardiovascular parameters and may help prevent metabolic syndrome, particularly in combination with other plant extracts. [29]
Pharmacodynamics

Mode of Action

Documented and presumed mechanisms underlying hibiscus's antihypertensive and diuretic effects.

🍋

Fruit Acids & Flavor

Fruit acids are responsible for the pleasant tart flavor of the infusion, and the same poorly-absorbed acids contribute to the mild laxative effect.

⚖️

Aldosterone Modulation

Modulates aldosterone activity, contributing to the natriuretic, potassium-sparing diuretic effect.[9]

🎯

ACE Inhibition

Inhibits angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), the same pharmacological target as drugs like captopril and lisinopril.[11]

🩸

Renal Nitric Oxide Release

Releases nitric oxide at the renal level, relaxing the renal vascular endothelium and improving renal filtration.[10]

Clinical Safety

Safety, Precautions & Pregnancy

Generally well tolerated in clinical trials, with one genuinely unresolved question around pregnancy.

⚠️

Adverse Effects

  • No adverse effects reported across the clinical trials reviewed. [2]
  • Animal reproductive toxicity (high dose): maternal exposure in rats may adversely affect male offspring's reproductive parameters (reduced sperm count) — but only at high doses of 250–500 mg of extract per kg of body weight per day, far above typical human tea or extract doses. [30]
🤰

Pregnancy — An Open Question

  • Traditional use: in Senegal, bissap is recommended during pregnancy to help prevent preeclampsia.
  • Clinical support: a trial found the infusion effective in preventing postpartum hypertension. [31]
  • Counterpoint: the animal reproductive-toxicity finding above used a maternal-exposure model, creating a genuine, unresolved tension with traditional use during pregnancy.
  • Practical takeaway: discuss hibiscus use during pregnancy with a healthcare provider rather than relying on either thread alone.
Clinical Disclaimer: This monograph is for educational and professional reference only. It does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment guidance. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider before initiating any phytotherapeutic regimen, particularly if you are pregnant, breastfeeding, or taking blood pressure or diuretic medication.
Common Questions

Frequently Asked Questions

What is hibiscus tea (karkadé) used for?
Hibiscus tea, made from the dried calyces of Hibiscus sabdariffa, is studied for high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol and triglycerides, and metabolic syndrome. Traditionally it is also used for weeping eczema, allergies, colds, and urinary tract infections.
Does hibiscus tea really lower blood pressure as well as medication?
Two randomized controlled trials found a standardized hibiscus preparation comparably effective to low-dose captopril or lisinopril in patients with mild-to-moderate hypertension. However, a separate systematic review concluded there is not enough reliable evidence to recommend hibiscus as a treatment for primary hypertension in adults, so the picture is mixed rather than settled.
What is the recommended dose of hibiscus tea?
Clinical trials have used roughly 10 grams of dried calyces per day as an infusion (standardized to about 9.6 mg of total anthocyanidins), or 250 mg of a standardized dry extract per day. A higher-dose extract (1000 mg, including 45 mg of polyphenols) has been used in lipid-focused trials. Always confirm dosing with a healthcare provider.
Is hibiscus the same as karkadé or bissap?
Yes. Karkadé is the Arabic/Egyptian name and bissap the West African name for Hibiscus sabdariffa, the same plant known in English as hibiscus, roselle, or sour tea.
Is hibiscus tea safe during pregnancy?
The evidence is mixed and worth discussing with a healthcare provider. An animal study found that high maternal doses affected male offspring's reproductive parameters in rats, while separately, traditional use in Senegal recommends bissap during pregnancy to help prevent preeclampsia, and a clinical trial found the infusion effective in preventing postpartum hypertension. These findings have not been reconciled in the literature.
Does hibiscus tea interact with blood pressure medications?
Because hibiscus has its own ACE-inhibiting and diuretic effects, combining it with blood pressure medications such as ACE inhibitors or diuretics could theoretically have an additive effect. This has not been studied as a formal drug interaction, so anyone on blood pressure medication should discuss hibiscus tea with their healthcare provider.
Can hibiscus tea help with cholesterol?
Yes, this is one of its better-studied uses. Hibiscus calyx extracts have been shown to lower total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides while raising HDL cholesterol, in some trials without adverse effects.
What gives hibiscus tea its red color?
The deep red color comes from anthocyanins, principally delphinidin-3-sambubioside and related compounds, which are also linked to the plant's antihypertensive and cholesterol-lowering effects.
Primary Literature

Bibliography

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↑ 2. Montalvo-González E, Villagrán Z, González-Torres S, Iñiguez-Muñoz LE, Isiordia-Espinoza MA, Ruvalcaba-Gómez JM, Arteaga-Garibay RI, Acosta JL, González-Silva N, Anaya-Esparza LM. Physiological Effects and Human Health Benefits of Hibiscus sabdariffa: A Review of Clinical Trials. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2022 Apr 12;15(4):464. PubMed PMID:35455462 →
↑ 3. Mounnissamy VM, Kavimani S, Gunasegaran R. Antibacterial activity of gossypetin isolated from Hibiscus sabdariffa. The Antiseptic. 2002 Mar;99(3):81-82.
↑ 4. Higginbotham KL, Burris KP, Zivanovic S, Davidson PM, Stewart CN Jr. Antimicrobial activity of Hibiscus sabdariffa aqueous extracts against Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Staphylococcus aureus in a microbiological medium and milk of various fat concentrations. J Food Prot. 2014;77(2):262-268. DOI:10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-13-313 →
↑ 5. Sanogo R, Diallo D, Diarra S, Ekoumou C, Bougoudogo F. Activité antibactérienne et antalgique de deux recettes traditionnelles utilisées dans le traitement des infections urinaires et la cystite au Mali. Mali Médical. 2006;21(1). Full text →
↑ 6. Kao ES, Hsu JD, Wang CJ, Yang SH, Cheng SY, Lee HJ. Polyphenols extracted from Hibiscus sabdariffa L. inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation by improving antioxidative conditions and regulating cyclooxygenase-2 expression. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2009 Feb;73(2):385-390. PubMed PMID:19202285 →
↑ 7. Akkol EK, Yeşilada E, Güvenç A. Valuation of anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of Erica species native to Turkey. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008 Mar 5;116(2):251-257. PubMed PMID:18164152 →
↑ 8. Ali MB, Salih WM, Mohamed AH, Homeida AM. Investigation of the antispasmodic potential of Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces. J Ethnopharmacol. 1991 Feb;31(2):249-257. PubMed PMID:2023432 →
↑ 9. Jiménez-Ferrer E, Alarcón-Alonso J, Aguilar-Rojas A, Zamilpa A, Jiménez-Ferrer CI, Tortoriello J, Herrera-Ruiz M. Diuretic effect of compounds from Hibiscus sabdariffa by modulation of the aldosterone activity. Planta Med. 2012 Dec;78(18):1893-1898. PubMed PMID:23150077 →
↑ 10. Alarcón-Alonso J, Zamilpa A, Aguilar FA, Herrera-Ruiz M, Tortoriello J, Jimenez-Ferrer E. Pharmacological characterization of the diuretic effect of Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn (Malvaceae) extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012 Feb 15;139(3):751-756. PubMed PMID:22178178 →
↑ 11. Ojeda D, Jiménez-Ferrer E, Zamilpa A, Herrera-Arellano A, Tortoriello J, Alvarez L. Inhibition of angiotensin convertin enzyme (ACE) activity by the anthocyanins delphinidin- and cyanidin-3-O-sambubiosides from Hibiscus sabdariffa. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010 Jan 8;127(1):7-10. PubMed PMID:19808084 →
↑ 12. Jonadet M, Bastide J, Bastide P, Boyer B, Carnat AP, Lamaison JL. In vitro enzyme inhibitory and in vivo cardioprotective activities of hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.). J Pharm Belg. 1990 Mar-Apr;45(2):120-124. PubMed PMID:2355305 →
↑ 13. Serban C, Sahebkar A, Ursoniu S, Andrica F, Banach M. Effect of sour tea (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) on arterial hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Hypertens. 2015 Jun;33(6):1119-1127. PubMed PMID:25875025 →
↑ 14. Mozaffari-Khosravi H, Jalali-Khanabadi BA, Afkhami-Ardekani M, Fatehi F, Noori-Shadkam M. The effects of sour tea (Hibiscus sabdariffa) on hypertension in patients with type II diabetes. J Hum Hypertens. 2009;23:48-54.
↑ 15. McKay DL, Chen CY, Saltzman E, Blumberg JB. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. tea (tisane) lowers blood pressure in prehypertensive and mildly hypertensive adults. J Nutr. 2010 Feb;140(2):298-303. PubMed PMID:20018807 →
↑ 16. Seck SM, Diop AE, Ka FE, Doupa D, Diouf B, Gueye L. Antihypertensive efficacy of Combretum micranthum and Hibiscus sabdariffa: a randomized controlled trial versus ramipril. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2016;31(suppl_1):120.
↑ 17. Seck SM, Doupa D, Dia DG, Diop EA, Ardiet DL, Nogueira RC, Graz B, Diouf B. Clinical efficacy of African traditional medicines in hypertension: a randomized controlled trial with Combretum micranthum and Hibiscus sabdariffa. J Hum Hypertens. 2017 Dec;32(1):75-81. PubMed PMID:29311704 →
↑ 18. Bourqui A, Niang EAB, Graz B, Diop EA, Dahaba M, Thiaw I, Soumare K, Valmaggia P, Nogueira RC, Cavin AL, Al-Anbaki M, Seck SM. Hypertension treatment with Combretum micranthum or Hibiscus sabdariffa, as decoction or tablet: a randomized clinical trial. J Hum Hypertens. 2021 Sep;35(9):800-808. PubMed PMID:32948827 →
↑ 19. Elkafrawy N, Younes K, Naguib A, Badr H, Kamal Zewain S, Kamel M, Raoof GFA, M El-Desoky A, Mohamed S. Antihypertensive efficacy and safety of a standardized herbal medicinal product of Hibiscus sabdariffa and Olea europaea extracts (NW Roselle): a phase-II, randomized, double-blind, captopril-controlled clinical trial. Phytother Res. 2020 Dec;34(12):3379-3387. PubMed PMID:32725873 →
↑ 20. Kuriyan R, Kumar DR, R R, Kurpad AV. An evaluation of the hypolipidemic effect of an extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa leaves in hyperlipidemic Indians: a double blind, placebo controlled trial. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2010 Jun 17;10:27. Full text →
↑ 21. Chaisungnern K, Rattananupong T, Klinhom R, Nanta S, Banchuen K, Itharat A, Kuropakornpong P, Supasiri T, Nootim P, Jiamjarasrangsi W. Efficacy of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. extract on metabolic parameters in participants with abdominal obesity and mild metabolic syndrome in Bangkok, Thailand: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Complement Ther Med. 2025 Aug;91:103185. PubMed PMID:40334927 →
↑ 22. el-Saadany SS, Sitohy MZ, Labib SM, el-Massry RA. Biochemical dynamics and hypocholesterolemic action of Hibiscus sabdariffa (Karkade). Nahrung. 1991;35(6):567-576. PubMed PMID:1787844 →
↑ 23. Ngueguim F, Djientcheu Tientcheu JP, Donfack H, Gounoue R, Dzeufiet P, Kamtchouing P, Dimo T. Hibiscus noldea (Malvaceae) aqueous extract prevents insulin resistance and protects pancreatic islets from dexamethasone damages in rat. Int J Phytomedicine. 2017;9.
↑ 24. Al-Anbaki M, Cavin AL, Nogueira RC, et al. Hibiscus sabdariffa, a treatment for uncontrolled hypertension. Pilot comparative intervention. Plants (Basel). 2021 May 19;10(5):1018. PubMed PMID:34069702 →
↑ 25. Herrera-Arellano A, Flores-Romero S, Chávez-Soto MA, Tortoriello J. Effectiveness and tolerability of a standardized extract from Hibiscus sabdariffa in patients with mild to moderate hypertension: a controlled and randomized clinical trial. Phytomedicine. 2004 Jul;11(5):375-382. PubMed PMID:15330492 →
↑ 26. Herrera-Arellano A, Miranda-Sánchez J, Avila-Castro P, Herrera-Alvarez S, Jiménez-Ferrer JE, Zamilpa A, Román-Ramos R, Ponce-Monter H, Tortoriello J. Clinical effects produced by a standardized herbal medicinal product of Hibiscus sabdariffa on patients with hypertension. A randomized, double-blind, lisinopril-controlled clinical trial. Planta Med. 2007 Jan;73(1):6-12. PubMed PMID:17315307 →
↑ 27. Wahabi HA, Alansary LA, Al-Sabban AH, Glasziuo P. The effectiveness of Hibiscus sabdariffa in the treatment of hypertension: a systematic review. Phytomedicine. 2010 Feb;17(2):83-86. PubMed PMID:19801187 →
↑ 28. Yusni Y, Meutia F. Action mechanism of Rosella (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) used to treat metabolic syndrome in elderly women. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2020;2020. Full text →
↑ 29. García-Muñoz AM, García-Guillén AI, Victoria-Montesinos D, Abellán-Ruiz MS, Alburquerque-González B, Cánovas F. Effect of the combination of Hibiscus sabdariffa in combination with other plant extracts in the prevention of metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Foods. 2023 Jun 5;12(11):2269. PubMed PMID:37297513 →
↑ 30. de Arruda A, Cardoso CA, Vieira Mdo C, Arena AC. Safety assessment of Hibiscus sabdariffa after maternal exposure on male reproductive parameters in rats. Drug Chem Toxicol. 2016;39(1):22-27. PubMed PMID:25682722 →
↑ 31. Ritonga N, Setiani O, Umaroh, R K, Amri F. Roselle flower (Hibiscus sabdariffa) in the treatment of hypertension in postpartum mothers. Belitung Nurs J. 2017;3:229-237.

Additional Reference Literature

Wichtl M, Anton R. Plantes thérapeutiques: Tradition, pratique officinale, science et thérapeutique. Ed. Tec & Doc, Cachan. 1999. p. 268.
Boullard B. Plantes médicinales du monde. Ed. ESTEM. 2001. p. 268.