Pharmacognosy · Gastric & Endocrine Support

Licorice

Glycyrrhiza glabra (Fabaceae) — a perennial legume whose sweet root has been used medicinally since antiquity, from Theophrastus's ulcer remedies to Alexander's armies chewing it to fend off thirst crossing the desert. Its signature compound, glycyrrhizin, is roughly 50 times sweeter than sugar and inhibits an enzyme that regulates cortisol in the kidney — the basis for both its gastric, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory reputation, and its best-known safety concern.

57 Primary Refs
8 Properties
Root Parts Used
✦ Researched
Last Updated August 3, 2026
Primary Source Wikiphyto · NCBI PubMed · Phytother Res
Family Fabaceae
French Pharmacopoeia List A · Fabaceae

Biological Overview

Glycyrrhiza glabra is a perennial herbaceous plant that can reach and exceed 1 meter in height, native to southern Europe (var. typica), central and eastern Europe (var. glandulifera), or Asia Minor (var. violacea). It has extensive underground parts with a stoloniferous rhizome, imparipinnate compound leaves, and small lilac to blue-violet papilionaceous flowers in elongated clusters, followed by a flattened, seed-bumped pod.

HabitPerennial Herb, to 1m+
Native RangeS./C./E. Europe · Asia Minor
Glycyrrhizin Content3–5% (root)
Regulatory StatusFr. Pharmacopoeia List A
Botanical Classification

Taxonomy & Identification

Latin Name
Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
Related Species
G. inflata, G. uralensis (Gan Cao)
Family
Fabaceae (subfamily Faboideae)
Common Names
Licorice, Liquorice, Sweet Root, Réglisse
Parts Used
Root and rhizome
Origin
Southern/central/eastern Europe, Asia Minor
Ethnobotany & Traditional Use

History & Tradition

Licorice's medicinal properties have been known since antiquity. Its name comes from the Greek glykos (sweet) and rhiza (root). Theophrastus recommended it for ulcers in the 3rd century BC and noted its effect of reducing the sensation of thirst; the Greeks and Romans used it for asthma and ulcers.

In China, licorice ranks among the ten most important herbs in the traditional pharmacopoeia. Arab physicians used it for painful menstrual periods, and in Japan it has been used to help induce ovulation in hyperandrogenic women.

The Scythians and Alexander the Great's armies used licorice to combat thirst while crossing deserts — a use now understood to trace back to its mineralocorticoid-like effect (pseudo-hyperaldosteronism), which promotes fluid retention.

⚠ Chronic Overconsumption Risk

Because glycyrrhizin is roughly 50 times sweeter than sugar, licorice is easy to over-consume as candy or tea. Regular high intake — not occasional use — is the most common route to pseudo-hyperaldosteronism symptoms: hypertension, edema, and hypokalemia.

Timeline

Ancient Medicinal Use

Antiquity

Theophrastus recommended licorice for ulcers in the 3rd century BC and noted its thirst-reducing effect; the Greeks and Romans used it for asthma and ulcers.

Cross-Cultural Adoption

Antiquity–Medieval

Ranked among the ten most important herbs in Chinese medicine; used by Arab physicians for painful periods; used by the Scythians and Alexander's armies to combat thirst in desert crossings.

Japanese Reproductive Use

Traditional

Used in Japan to help induce ovulation in hyperandrogenic women.

Modern Antiviral & Endocrine Research

20th Century–Present

Modern research characterized glycyrrhizin's antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and pseudo-mineralocorticoid mechanisms, including its interaction with 11β-HSD2. 78

The Key Molecule

Glycyrrhizin — Deep Dive

The intensely sweet triterpene saponin behind both licorice's broad pharmacological reputation and its best-known safety concern.

🧬

Triterpene Saponin Structure

Glycyrrhizin (glycyrrhizic acid) is the dominant beta-amyrin-type triterpene saponin, comprising 3–5% of the root. Its aglycone is glycyrrhetinic acid — also called enoxolone, or 18-β-glycyrrhetinic acid.

🧪

11β-HSD2 Inhibition

Glycyrrhizin inhibits renal 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11β-HSD2), blocking the conversion of cortisol to cortisone. 8

💧

Pseudo-Mineralocorticoid Effect

Because unconverted cortisol binds mineralocorticoid receptors, this produces pseudo-hyperaldosteronism — sodium and water retention, potassium loss — historically exploited by desert travelers to combat thirst.

🍬

Extreme Sweetness

Glycyrrhizin is roughly 50 times sweeter than cane sugar — part of why overconsumption as candy or tea is common, and why dosing awareness matters more here than for most botanicals.

⚠ Glycyrrhizin Isn't Directly Mineralocorticoid

The mechanism is indirect, via cortisol — not direct receptor binding.

Glycyrrhizin has no direct mineralocorticoid activity itself — its affinity for mineralocorticoid receptors is roughly 10,000 times weaker than aldosterone's. Its toxicity instead comes from blocking the enzyme that normally clears cortisol from binding those same receptors. 51

Pharmaceutical Preparations

Parts Used & Available Forms

The root and rhizome are used medicinally, prepared across five documented forms.

Licorice Sticks

Dried root sticks, traditionally chewed or steeped whole.

Whole Root

Fluid Extract

Liquid root extract standardized to a fixed drug-to-extract ratio.

Fluid Extract

Mother Tincture

Tincture of the underground part (root and rhizome), used at practitioner-directed dilution.

Mother Tincture

Standardized Plant Extract

Fresh-plant standardized extract (EPS) of the root.

Standardized Extract

Dry Aqueous Extract

Concentrated water-based dry extract of the root.

Dry Extract

Clinical Dosimetry

Dosages

No standardized usual dosage is established in the available phytotherapy literature for licorice root. Given glycyrrhizin's endocrine activity, duration-limited, practitioner-guided dosing is standard practice.

Form Dose Duration Notes
Any Form (Sticks, Extract, Tincture) Not established in source Short-term recommended No usual dosage is specified in the available phytotherapy source; glycyrrhizin content and duration of use should be guided by a qualified practitioner given its endocrine activity.
Phytochemistry

Composition

Root composition only — no gemmotherapy (bud) or essential-oil fraction is documented for this species.

Root — Primary Constituents

Glycyrrhizin (Glycyrrhizic Acid)Beta-amyrin-type triterpene saponin, primary marker compound; aglycone is glycyrrhetinic acid (enoxolone)
3–5%
Flavonoids & IsoflavonoidsLiquiritoside, isoliquiritoside, liquiritigenin, naringenin, glabridine, glabrene, glabrol, licochalcone, licoricidine, and related compounds
Present
PhytosterolsBeta-sitosterol, stigmasterol — steroids with weak estrogenic activity
Trace
Polysaccharides (Starches)Contribute to inhibition of H. pylori adhesion to gastric mucosa
25–30%
Simple SugarsGlucose, sucrose
Present
ArylcoumarinMinor constituent
Present

Plant Properties — Pharmacodynamics

Eight core pharmacodynamic properties are documented for licorice root, spanning gastric, respiratory, antiviral, and endocrine pathways.

8 Properties Gastroprotective Antiviral Clinical + Preclinical
🛡️

Gastroprotective

Increases gastric mucus secretion, decreases pepsinogen secretion, and inhibits Helicobacter pylori adhesion to the gastric wall via its polysaccharides. 12

🌀

Antispasmodic

Flavonoids liquiritoside and isoliquiritoside show antispasmodic activity relevant to digestive comfort.

🫁

Expectorant / Mucolytic

Facilitates expectoration and shows antitussive activity, consistent with traditional respiratory use.

🦠

Antiviral

Reduces mortality and viral activity in herpes simplex encephalitis and influenza A pneumonia models, with in vitro activity against HIV-1, SARS-related coronavirus, RSV, and other viruses. 345

🧫

Immunostimulant

Increases phagocytosis and stimulates T- and B-lymphocyte production. 6

🔥

Anti-inflammatory

Glycyrrhizin inhibits prostaglandin E2 production by activated macrophages. 28

💧

Mineralocorticoid-Like

Produces pseudo-hyperaldosteronism and potentiates corticosteroids by inhibiting cortisol inactivation. 789

🫀

Hepatoprotective

Systematic review and RCT evidence supports improved liver function markers in patients with primary liver disease. 363738

Clinical Applications

Clinical Indications

Licorice's traditional use spans gastrointestinal, respiratory, topical, and endocrine contexts.

🩺
Gastrointestinal Health
Primary Indication
  • Gastritis & Ulcers: Gastric and duodenal ulcer, including cases associated with Helicobacter pylori.
  • Canker Sores & Stomatitis: Topical licorice preparations are used for aphthous ulcers and stomatitis. 46
🫁
Respiratory Support
Traditional Indication
  • Sore Throats & Bronchitis: Traditionally used for sore throats, chronic bronchitis, and asthma via its expectorant and antitussive action.
🧴
Topical & Dermatological Use
Traditional Indication
  • Skin Irritation: Hemorrhoids, anal and vulvar pruritus, eczema, itching, skin ulceration, insect bites, sunburn, seborrheic dermatitis, and diaper rash.
  • Lichen Planus: Case reports and small studies describe benefit in oral lichen planus with glycyrrhizin. 4748
⚠️
Hormonal & Endocrine Contexts
Clinical Precautions Apply
  • Adrenal & Corticosteroid Contexts: Adrenal insufficiency and short-term corticosteroid-sparing use.
  • Female Hyperandrogenism: Traditionally used for hirsutism and hyperandrogenism, and reported to help induce ovulation in hyperandrogenic women; improved symptoms in letrozole-induced PCOS in rats. 4950
Pharmacodynamics

Mode of Action

Licorice's effects span a distinctive endocrine mechanism alongside local anti-inflammatory and gastroprotective activity.

💧

Pseudo-Mineralocorticoid Mechanism

Glycyrrhizin produces pseudo-hyperaldosteronism by interacting with 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, lowering aldosterone and renin; its monoglucuronide metabolite is what drives this effect.

🩹

Local Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Action

Enoxolone (glycyrrhetinic acid) acts as a topical steroidal-type anti-inflammatory agent when used locally — for example, for anal or vulvar pruritus and sunburn.

🧬

Testosterone Pathway Interference

Glycyrrhizic acid interferes with 17-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, the enzyme that converts androstenedione to testosterone, potentially lowering testosterone in both men and women — though this effect was not replicated for salivary testosterone. 101112

🦠

H. pylori Adhesion Inhibition

Root polysaccharides inhibit adhesion of Helicobacter pylori to the gastric mucosa, contributing to licorice's gastroprotective effect. 2

Comparative Analysis

Whole Licorice vs DGL

Same root, two very different risk profiles — depending on whether glycyrrhizin has been processed out.

Criterion Whole Licorice DGL
Glycyrrhizin Content Contains natural glycyrrhizin (3–5%) Glycyrrhizin removed or greatly reduced during processing
Mineralocorticoid Risk ⚠ Risk of pseudo-hyperaldosteronism with prolonged or high intake Minimal mineralocorticoid risk due to glycyrrhizin removal
Best Use Case Short-term corticosteroid-sparing use, antiviral/immune support, broader traditional indications Longer-term gastric and duodenal mucosal support without the sodium/potassium concerns
Taste Distinctly sweet (glycyrrhizin ~50× sweeter than sugar) Milder, less sweet
Typical Form Root sticks, fluid extract, tincture, EPS, dry extract Chewable tablets or capsules specifically processed to remove glycyrrhizin
Duration of Use Best limited to short courses given endocrine activity Considered suitable for more extended use given reduced glycyrrhizin exposure

Bottom Line

Whole licorice root retains glycyrrhizin's broader antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and corticosteroid-sparing activity, but that same compound is responsible for its blood-pressure and potassium risks with prolonged use. DGL removes glycyrrhizin specifically to preserve licorice's gastric-soothing reputation while minimizing that risk — which is why DGL, not whole licorice, is generally preferred for extended everyday use.

Risk Profile

Safety & Interactions

Licorice's safety profile centers on glycyrrhizin's endocrine activity — dose, duration, and drug interactions matter more here than for most botanicals.

⚠ Genuine Risks Specific to This Plant

Read Before Using Licorice

  • Pseudo-hyperaldosteronism: glycyrrhizin intoxication causes primary pseudo-hyperaldosteronism via inhibition of 11β-HSD2, leading to hypertension, edema, hypokalemia, and cardiac abnormalities. 51
  • Drug interactions to avoid: digoxin (increased sensitivity), diuretics and stimulant laxatives (hypokalemia risk), corticosteroids (additive effect, worsened hypokalemia), oral contraceptives (increased glycyrrhizin effects), antihypertensives (altered effect), and omeprazole (reduced plasma concentrations).
  • Hormone-sensitive cancers: avoid given licorice's estrogenic properties.
  • CYP/P-gp inhibition: possibly inhibits CYP2B6, CYP3A4, and P-glycoprotein, though the supporting studies are contradictory.
✓ How to Use Licorice More Safely

A Practical Safety Checklist

  1. Limit duration and amount. Prolonged, high-intake use — including licorice candy or tea — is the main route to pseudo-hyperaldosteronism.
  2. Watch for warning signs. Elevated blood pressure, swelling, or muscle weakness or cramping can signal excess glycyrrhizin intake.
  3. Avoid mixing with certain medications. Particularly digoxin, diuretics, stimulant laxatives, corticosteroids, oral contraceptives, and omeprazole without medical guidance.
  4. Consider DGL for regular use. Deglycyrrhizinated licorice avoids most of the endocrine risk if you want ongoing gastric support.
  5. Avoid in hormone-sensitive conditions. Skip licorice if you have a hormone-dependent cancer or another estrogen-sensitive condition.
  6. Talk to a provider first if pregnant, or if you have hypertension, kidney disease, or heart conditions.
⚠️

Adverse Effects

  • Pseudo-Hyperaldosteronism: hypertension, edema from sodium retention, hypokalemia, muscle contractility disturbances, and cardiac abnormalities. 51
  • Hormonal Effects: may lower testosterone via interference with 17β-HSD in both men and women; estrogenic activity from beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and glabridine. 1011
  • CYP/P-gp Interaction: possibly inhibits CYP2B6, CYP3A4, and P-glycoprotein, though evidence is contradictory.
🚫

Contraindications & Interactions

  • Medication Interactions: avoid combining with digoxin, diuretics or stimulant laxatives, corticosteroids, oral contraceptives, antihypertensives, or omeprazole without guidance.
  • Hormone-Dependent Cancers: avoid given licorice's estrogenic properties.
  • Cardiovascular & Renal Conditions: use particular caution with hypertension, kidney disease, or heart conditions given the pseudo-mineralocorticoid mechanism.
Clinical Disclaimer: This information is for educational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before starting licorice, particularly if pregnant, have hypertension, kidney or heart disease, or take other medications.
Common Questions

Frequently Asked Questions

What is licorice root used for?
Licorice root is traditionally used for gastritis and gastric or duodenal ulcers, sore throats and chronic bronchitis, canker sores, and topically for hemorrhoids, eczema, and skin irritation. It has also been used for adrenal insufficiency and short-term corticosteroid-sparing support.
How does licorice affect blood pressure and potassium?
Glycyrrhizin inhibits an enzyme (11β-HSD2) that normally breaks down cortisol in the kidney. The resulting excess cortisol activates mineralocorticoid receptors, producing pseudo-hyperaldosteronism: sodium and water retention, potassium loss, and elevated blood pressure with prolonged or high intake.
What is glycyrrhizin?
Glycyrrhizin (glycyrrhizic acid) is the dominant triterpene saponin in licorice root, making up roughly 3–5% of the root. Its aglycone, glycyrrhetinic acid (also called enoxolone), is responsible for many of licorice's characteristic effects and side effects.
Is there a licorice form without the blood pressure risk?
Yes. Deglycyrrhizinated licorice (DGL) has had glycyrrhizin removed or greatly reduced during processing, which largely eliminates the pseudo-hyperaldosteronism risk while retaining licorice's traditional gastric-soothing reputation.
Can I take licorice with other medications?
Use caution. Licorice should not be combined with digoxin, diuretics or stimulant laxatives, corticosteroids, oral contraceptives, certain antihypertensives, or omeprazole without medical guidance, given documented pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic interactions.
Does licorice affect hormones?
Yes. Glycyrrhizic acid interferes with an enzyme that converts androstenedione to testosterone, potentially lowering testosterone in both men and women, and several licorice constituents show estrogenic activity, which is why it's generally avoided in hormone-dependent cancers.
Is licorice safe for long-term use?
Whole licorice containing glycyrrhizin is generally recommended for short-term use given its endocrine activity. For ongoing use, deglycyrrhizinated licorice (DGL) carries substantially less risk of pseudo-hyperaldosteronism.
Licorice vs DGL — which should I use?
Whole licorice retains glycyrrhizin's broader antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and corticosteroid-sparing activity but carries blood-pressure and potassium risks with prolonged use. DGL removes glycyrrhizin specifically to preserve the gastric-soothing benefit while minimizing that risk, making it the generally preferred choice for extended everyday use.
Sources

Bibliography

↑1. Khayyal MT, el-Ghazaly MA, Kenawy SA, et al. Antiulcerogenic effect of some gastrointestinally acting plant extracts and their combination. Arzneimittelforschung. 2001;51(7):545–553.
PubMed: PMID 11505785 →
↑2. Wittschier N, Faller G, Hensel A. Aqueous extracts and polysaccharides from liquorice roots (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) inhibit adhesion of Helicobacter pylori to human gastric mucosa. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;125(2):218–223.
PubMed: PMID 19607905 →
↑3. Fiore C, Eisenhut M, Krausse R, et al. Antiviral effects of Glycyrrhiza species. Phytother Res. 2008;22(2):141–148.
PubMed: PMID 17886224 →
↑4. Hoever G, Baltina L, Michaelis M, et al. Antiviral activity of glycyrrhizic acid derivatives against SARS-coronavirus. J Med Chem. 2005;48(4):1256–1259.
PubMed: PMID 15715493 →
↑5. Cinatl J, Morgenstern B, Bauer G, et al. Glycyrrhizin, an active component of liquorice roots, and replication of SARS-associated coronavirus. Lancet. 2003;361(9374):2045–2046.
PubMed: PMID 12814717 →
↑6. Yang G, Yu Y. Immunopotentiating effect of traditional Chinese drugs — ginsenoside and glycyrrhiza polysaccharide. Proc Chin Acad Med Sci Peking Union Med Coll. 1990;5(4):188–193.
PubMed: PMID 2293226 →
↑7. Kageyama Y, Suzuki H, Saruta T. Glycyrrhizin induces mineralocorticoid activity through alterations in cortisol metabolism in the human kidney. J Endocrinol. 1992;135(1):147–152.
PubMed: PMID 1431677 →
↑8. Soma R, Ikeda M, Morise T, Miyamori I, Takeda R. Effect of glycyrrhizin on cortisol metabolism in humans. Endocr Regul. 1994;28(1):31–34.
PubMed: PMID 7949011 →
↑9. Al-Qarawi AA, Abdel-Rahman HA, Ali BH, El Mougy SA. Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and the adrenal-kidney-pituitary axis in rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2002;40(10):1525–1527.
PubMed: PMID 12387318 →
↑10. Armanini D, Bonanni G, Mattarello MJ, et al. Licorice consumption and serum testosterone in healthy man. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2003;111(6):341–343.
PubMed: PMID 14520600 →
↑11. Armanini D, Mattarello MJ, Fiore C, et al. Licorice reduces serum testosterone in healthy women. Steroids. 2004;69(11-12):763–766.
PubMed: PMID 15579328 →
↑12. Josephs RA, Guinn JS, Harper ML, Askari F. Liquorice consumption and salivary testosterone concentrations. Lancet. 2001;358(9293):1613–1614.
PubMed: PMID 11716893 →
↑13. Winston D, Maimes S. Adaptogens: Herbs for Strength, Stamina, and Stress Relief. Healing Arts Press, 2007.
14. Dhingra D, Parle M, Kulkarni SK. Memory enhancing activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;91(2-3):361–365.
PubMed: PMID 15120462 →
15. Parle M, Dhingra D, Kulkarni SK. Memory-strengthening activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra in exteroceptive and interoceptive behavioral models. J Med Food. 2004;7(4):462–466.
PubMed: PMID 15671690 →
16. Cui YM, Ao MZ, Li W, Yu LJ. Effect of glabridin from Glycyrrhiza glabra on learning and memory in mice. Planta Med. 2008;74(4):377–380.
PubMed: PMID 18484526 →
17. Dhingra D, Parle M, Kulkarni SK. Comparative brain cholinesterase-inhibiting activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Myristica fragrans, ascorbic acid, and metrifonate in mice. J Med Food. 2006;9(2):281–283.
PubMed: PMID 16822217 →
18. Yu XQ, Xue CC, Zhou ZW, et al. In vitro and in vivo neuroprotective effect and mechanisms of glabridin, a major active isoflavan from Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice). Life Sci. 2008;82(1-2):68–78.
PubMed: PMID 18048062 →
19. Zhan C, Yang J. Protective effects of isoliquiritigenin in transient middle cerebral artery occlusion-induced focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Pharmacol Res. 2006;53(3):303–309.
PubMed: PMID 16459097 →
20. Yang EJ, Min JS, Ku HY, et al. Isoliquiritigenin isolated from Glycyrrhiza uralensis protects neuronal cells against glutamate-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2012;421(4):658–664.
PubMed: PMID 22538371 →
21. Hwang CK, Chun HS. Isoliquiritigenin isolated from licorice Glycyrrhiza uralensis prevents 6-hydroxydopamine-induced apoptosis in dopaminergic neurons. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2012;76(3):536–543.
PubMed: PMID 22451397 →
22. Ambawade SD, Kasture VS, Kasture SB. Anticonvulsant activity of roots and rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza glabra. Indian J Pharmacol. 2002;34:251–255.
Full Text (PDF) →
23. Dhingra D, Sharma A. Antidepressant-like activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. in mouse models of immobility tests. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2006;30(3):449–454.
PubMed: PMID 16443316 →
24. Fuhrman B, Buch S, Vaya J, et al. Licorice extract and its major polyphenol glabridin protect low-density lipoprotein against lipid peroxidation. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66(2):267–275.
PubMed: PMID 9250104 →
25. Belinky PA, Aviram M, Fuhrman B, et al. The antioxidative effects of the isoflavan glabridin on endogenous constituents of LDL during its oxidation. Atherosclerosis. 1998;137(1):49–61.
PubMed: PMID 9568736 →
26. Chin YW, Jung HA, Liu Y, et al. Anti-oxidant constituents of the roots and stolons of licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra). J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55(12):4691–4697.
PubMed: PMID 17516657 →
27. Imanishi N, Kawai H, Hayashi Y, et al. Effects of glycyrrhizin and glycyrrhetinic acid on dexamethasone-induced changes in histamine synthesis and release. Biochem Pharmacol. 1989;38(15):2521–2526.
PubMed: PMID 2474295 →
28. Ohuchi K, Kamada Y, Levine L, Tsurufuji S. Glycyrrhizin inhibits prostaglandin E2 production by activated peritoneal macrophages from rats. Prostaglandins Med. 1981;7(5):457–463.
PubMed: PMID 6798590 →
↑29. Tamir S, Eizenberg M, Somjen D, et al. Estrogenic and antiproliferative properties of glabridin from licorice in human breast cancer cells. Cancer Res. 2000;60:5704–5709.
30. Somjen D, Knoll E, Vaya J, Stern N, Tamir S. Estrogen-like activity of licorice root constituents: glabridin and glabrene, in vascular tissues in vitro and in vivo. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2004;91(3):147–155.
PubMed: PMID 15276622 →
31. Choi EM. The licorice root derived isoflavan glabridin increases the function of osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells. Biochem Pharmacol. 2005;70(3):363–368.
PubMed: PMID 15922308 →
32. Somjen D, Katzburg S, Vaya J, et al. Estrogenic activity of glabridin and glabrene from licorice roots on human osteoblasts and prepubertal rat skeletal tissues. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2004;91(4-5):241–246.
PubMed: PMID 15336701 →
33. Josephs RA, Guinn JS, Harper ML, Askari F. Liquorice consumption and salivary testosterone concentrations. Lancet. 2001;358(9293).
Full Text (PDF) →
34. Fu Y, Hsieh TC, Guo J, et al. Licochalcone-A, a novel flavonoid isolated from licorice root, causes G2 and late-G1 arrests in androgen-independent PC-3 prostate cancer cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2004;322(1):263–270.
PubMed: PMID 15313200 →
35. Sheela ML, Ramakrishna MK, Salimath BP. Angiogenic and proliferative effects of the cytokine VEGF in Ehrlich ascites tumor cells is inhibited by Glycyrrhiza glabra. Int Immunopharmacol. 2006;6(3):494–498.
PubMed: PMID 16428085 →
36. Giangrandi I, Dinu M, Napoletano A, et al. Licorice and liver function in patients with primary liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs. Phytother Res. 2024;38(9):4614–4627.
PubMed: PMID 39079711 →
↑37. Rostamizadeh P, Asl SMKH, Far ZG, et al. Effects of licorice root supplementation on liver enzymes, hepatic steatosis, metabolic and oxidative stress parameters in women with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Phytother Res. 2022;36(10):3949–3956.
PubMed: PMID 35785498 →
↑38. Rajesh MG, Latha MS. Protective activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. on carbon tetrachloride-induced peroxidative damage. Indian J Pharmacol. 2004;36:284–287.
Full Text →
↑39. Fukai T, Satoh K, Nomura T, Sakagami H. Preliminary evaluation of antinephritis and radical scavenging activities of glabridin from Glycyrrhiza glabra. Fitoterapia. 2003;74(7-8):624–629.
PubMed: PMID 14630165 →
40. Mitscher LA, Park YH, Clark D, Beal JL. Antimicrobial agents from higher plants: antimicrobial isoflavanoids and related substances from Glycyrrhiza glabra L. var. typica. J Nat Prod. 1980;43(2):259–269.
PubMed: PMID 7381508 →
41. Hatano T, Kusuda M, Inada K, et al. Effects of tannins and related polyphenols on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Phytochemistry. 2005;66(17):2047–2055.
PubMed: PMID 16153408 →
42. Fatima A, Gupta VK, Luqman S, et al. Antifungal activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra extracts and its active constituent glabridin. Phytother Res. 2009;23(8):1190–1193.
PubMed: PMID 19170157 →
43. Liu J, Manheimer E, Tsutani K, Gluud C. Medicinal herbs for hepatitis C virus infection: a Cochrane hepatobiliary systematic review of randomized trials. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003;98(3):538–544.
PubMed: PMID 12650784 →
44. Malek Jafarian M, et al. Licorice against Helicobacter pylori. 3rd International Congress on Health, Environment and Natural Products, Mashhad, Iran, 2004.
45. Lam W, Bussom S, Guan F, et al. The four-herb Chinese medicine PHY906 reduces chemotherapy-induced gastrointestinal toxicity. Sci Transl Med. 2010;2(45):45ra59.
PubMed: PMID 20720216 →
46. Dorsareh F, Vahid-Dastjerdi G, Bouyahya A, et al. Topical licorice for aphthous: a systematic review of clinical trials. Iran J Med Sci. 2023;48(5):437–447.
PubMed: PMID 37786470 →
↑47. Nagao Y, Sata M, Tanikawa K, Kameyama T. A case of oral lichen planus with chronic hepatitis C successfully treated by glycyrrhizin. Kansenshogaku Zasshi. 1995;69(8):940–944.
PubMed: PMID 7594790 →
↑48. Nagao Y, Sata M, Suzuki H, et al. Effectiveness of glycyrrhizin for oral lichen planus in patients with chronic HCV infection. J Gastroenterol. 1996;31(5):691–695.
PubMed: PMID 8887036 →
↑49. Arentz S, Abbott JA, Smith CA, Bensoussan A. Herbal medicine for the management of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and associated oligo/amenorrhoea and hyperandrogenism. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014;14:511.
Full Text →
↑50. Yang H, Kim HJ, Pyun BJ, Lee HW. Licorice ethanol extract improves symptoms of polycystic ovary syndrome in letrozole-induced female rats. Integr Med Res. 2018;7(3):264–270.
PubMed: PMID 30271715 →
↑51. VIGITOX. Centre Antipoison, Centre de Pharmacovigilance de Lyon. Bulletin N°39, January 2009.
Full Text (PDF) →
52. Shin IS, Lee MY, Kim Y, et al. Subacute toxicity and stability of Soshiho-tang, a traditional herbal formula, in Sprague-Dawley rats. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2012;12:266.
Full Text →

Additional Sources

Asl MN, Hosseinzadeh H. Review of pharmacological effects of Glycyrrhiza sp. and its bioactive compounds. Phytother Res. 2008;22(6):709–724.
PubMed: PMID 18446848 →
Sultana S, Haque A, Hamid K, Urmi KF, Roy S. Antimicrobial, cytotoxic and antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of Glycyrrhiza glabra. Agric Biol J N Am. 2010;1(5):957–960.
Ghedira K, Goetz P, Le Jeune R. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae) Réglisse. Phytothérapie (Formation Continue). Vol. 8, No. 3, 185–190.
Wichtl M, Anton R. Plantes thérapeutiques: Tradition, pratique officinale, science et thérapeutique. Tec & Doc, Cachan, 1999.
Bruneton J. Pharmacognosie, Phytochimie, Plantes médicinales. Tec & Doc, 1997.