Phytotherapy · Mood, Memory & Neuroprotection · Iridaceae

Saffron

Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae) — the autumn crocus whose dried red stigmas are the world's costliest spice. Its crocin, crocetin and safranal are studied in trials of mild to moderate depression, with research in memory, stress and sleep.

112 Primary Refs
12 Properties
Stigma Parts Used
✦ Researched
Last Updated November 2, 2026
Primary Source Wikiphyto · NCBI PubMed · Depression Meta-Analysis
Family Iridaceae
Autumn-Flowering Bulb · Triploid Sterile Crop

Botanical Overview

Saffron is a small bulbous perennial of 10 to 30 cm, of eastern origin, with white or violet flowers veined in red that open in early autumn, alone or in threes. Its growth is inverted: the leaves appear in September, the plant flowers in October and goes dormant in spring. The drug is the dark red, filamentous stigmas, with a powerful iodine-like aroma, a bitter, pungent taste and a color that comes from crocin. 1

Height10–30 cm
FloweringOctober
Stigmas per kgAbout 170,000
Best Used Within12 months
Taxonomic Classification

Taxonomy & Identification

Latin Name
Crocus sativus L., a sterile autotriploid that arose from two genotypes of Crocus cartwrightianus 678
Family
Iridaceae
Common Names
Saffron, Cultivated Saffron, Safran; in Chinese medicine Fan Hong Hua (also Zang Hong Hua and Xi Hong Hua) 7
Parts Used
Dried stigmas, with the yellowish base of the style attached
Regulatory Status
French Pharmacopoeia, list A (stigma)
Ethnobotany & Traditional Use

History & Tradition

Saffron has been used for more than four thousand years. The Akkadians of Mesopotamia, in the 24th century BC, and then the Assyrians used it, and frescoes in the palace of Knossos show it around 1700 BC. 3 Avicenna described it in the second book of his Canon of Medicine. 4

Genetic data, ancient texts and artworks place the origin of the crop in the Bronze Age, in Greece and Crete, probably in Attica. 58 The Arabs carried it to Spain in the 10th century and the Crusaders brought it to France in the 12th. Today Iran produces about 90% of the world's saffron. 2

Romans scented their banquet beds with it as an aphrodisiac, and Nero is said to have used it for good humor. Modern research centers on depression, with six small placebo-controlled and comparison trials and several meta-analyses. 23104

⚠ Freshness Matters

Saffron keeps poorly and is best used within 12 months, and about 170,000 stigmas make a kilogram. 1

Timeline

Akkadians & Assyrians

24th Century BC

Saffron is in use in Mesopotamia.

Knossos Frescoes

c. 1700 BC

Minoan artists paint saffron gathering in the palace of Knossos.

Canon of Medicine

Avicenna

Described in the second book of Avicenna's great medical text.

Spain & France

10th – 12th Century

Arabs introduce it to Spain, and Crusaders carry it to France.

The Key Compounds

Crocin, Crocetin & Safranal — Deep Dive

The apocarotenoids and volatile compounds that give saffron its color, aroma, taste and pharmacology.

🔴

Crocin (Crocoside)

About 2% of the drug: a water-soluble red diester of crocetin with gentiobiose at each end. In the gut, crocins are hydrolyzed to trans-crocetin, which crosses the blood-brain barrier. 47

👃

Safranal

About 60% of the essential oil and the source of the aroma. It acts as a partial TRPA1 agonist and desensitizes the channel, and it has anticonvulsant effects in mice. 1514

🍋

Picrocrocin

About 4% of the drug, responsible for the bitter, pungent taste of saffron.

🌸

Petal Flavonoids

The petals carry kaempferol glycosides, including kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside, which protected liver cells in the laboratory. 69

Pharmaceutical Preparations

Parts Used & Available Forms

The dried stigma is the drug, and petals have emerged as a cheaper extract.

Stigma

The dried red stigmas with the yellowish base of the style, listed in the French Pharmacopoeia (list A).

Stigma

Hydro-Alcoholic Dry Extract

A 5:1 dry extract of stigmas, standardized to safranal.

Dry Extract

Powder

Ground stigma, taken at about 200 mg.

Powder

Mother Tincture

Teinture-mère of the stigma, also prepared as the 1 DH homeopathic dilution.

Liquid Extract

Petal Extract

An extract of the flower petals, with antioxidant and antibacterial activity, tested against depression. 116768

Petal Extract

Isolated Crocin

Purified crocin, tested at 100 mg a day in metabolic syndrome. 76

Isolated Compound

Clinical Dosimetry

Dosages

Saffron is dosed in milligrams of standardized extract, usually 30 mg a day in trials.

Form Dose Frequency Context Notes
Hydro-Alcoholic Extract (Stigma or Petal) 30–60 mg Per day General use Titrated to 0.6–0.7 mg of safranal.
Powder 200 mg Per dose General use Ground stigma.
Stigma Extract 30 mg Per day Mild to moderate depression Matched imipramine 100 mg and fluoxetine 20 mg and beat placebo. 9899100
Petal Extract 30 mg Per day Mild to moderate depression Beat placebo from week 2 and matched fluoxetine 20 mg. 101102
Stigma Extract 30 mg Per day Mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease Used in 16-week and 22-week trials. 5859
Crocin 100 mg Per day, for 6 weeks Metabolic syndrome Well tolerated, with no effect on the components. 76
Phytochemistry

Composition

Apocarotenoids and the volatile oil define saffron, set within a matrix of sugars, lipids, proteins and flavonoids.

Stigma — Apocarotenoids & Aroma

Crocin (Crocoside)About 2%: the red, water-soluble diester of crocetin with gentiobiose
Major
CrocetinAlpha, beta and gamma forms
Present
PicrocrocinAbout 4%, the bitter principle (picrocrocoside)
Present
Essential Oil0.3 to 2%, with safranal at about 60% and isophorone derivatives 9
Present
CarotenoidsAlpha- and beta-carotene, lycopene, zeaxanthin and phytoene
Present

Nutrients & Phenolics

Carbohydrates12 to 15%: glucose, fructose, gentiobiose, xylose and rhamnose; cellulose 4 to 7%
Present
Lipids3 to 8%: campesterol, stigmasterol and beta-sitosterol with palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acids
Present
Peptides & MineralsPeptides 11 to 13% and minerals 1 to 1.5%, with mucilages
Present
FlavonoidsKaempferol and quercetin glycosides, kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside, isorhamnetin, myricetin and anthocyanosides 6869
Present
VitaminsRiboflavin (B2) at 56.4 to 138 µg/g, with thiamine (B1)
Present

Plant Properties — Pharmacodynamics

Twelve pharmacodynamic properties define saffron, led by mood, neuroprotection and antioxidant action.

12 Properties Antidepressant Neuroprotective Clinical Trials
🌟

Broad Pharmacological Profile

Antibacterial, antispasmodic, immunomodulatory, antitussive, antidepressant, analgesic, antioxidant and protective of liver, kidney, brain and heart. 101112

😊

Antidepressant

Aqueous and ethanolic extracts, crocin and crocetin reduced depressive-like behavior in mice, and saffron has been reviewed as an antidepressant. 19202124

🧠

Monoaminergic Modulation

Saffron extract modulated monoamine neurotransmission and the kynurenine pathway in mice. 272829

⚡

Anticonvulsant & Analgesic

Safranal and crocin were anticonvulsant in mice, and the stigma and petal extracts were antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory. 13141516

🫁

Antitussive & Anti-Asthmatic

Stigma, petals, safranal and crocin reduced cough in guinea pigs, and safranal attenuated asthma in mice. 1718

😴

Anxiolytic, Hypnotic & Withdrawal

Anxiolytic and hypnotic in mice, and active against morphine withdrawal in mice. 7778

🧘

Stress Resilience & Satiety

A standardized extract improved mood and well-being in healthy adults and eased the response to a psychosocial stressor, and another extract reduced snacking. 303431333235

💭

Memory & Neuroprotection

Protected against stress- and morphine-induced memory deficits, protected dopaminergic neurons and inhibited amyloid and alpha-synuclein aggregation. 36373839404142434445465657

🛡️

Antioxidant

Acts through the Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways, lowers TNF-α and scavenges free radicals. 495051525373

🫀

Organ Protection

Crocin and safranal protected hepatocytes, kidney, skeletal muscle and hippocampus from ischemia and toxins in animals. 54556061626364

❤️

Cardiovascular & Metabolic

Lowered blood pressure and lipids in rats, with reviewed cardiac benefit; crocin at 100 mg a day did not change metabolic syndrome in people. 6566707172747576

🎯

Antitumor (Laboratory)

Inhibited growth of human cancer cell lines, with chemopreventive effects in animals and less cisplatin toxicity in mice. 868788899091929394959697

Clinical Applications

Clinical Indications

Saffron is best supported in mild to moderate depression, with early trials in cognition, sleep and pain.

😊
Mild to Moderate Depression
Primary Indication
  • Stigma Extract 30 mg: matched imipramine and fluoxetine and beat placebo in pilot double-blind trials, with fewer anticholinergic effects. 9899100
  • Petal Extract 30 mg: beat placebo from the second week, matched fluoxetine, and compared with stigma extract. 101102103
  • Meta-Analyses & Reviews: better than placebo and comparable to standard antidepressants, with good tolerance. 2223104105106107
  • Postpartum & Diabetes: remission in 96% of breastfeeding mothers on saffron against 43% on placebo, and benefit on anxiety and depression in type 2 diabetes. 10825
🧠
Memory, Alzheimer's & Attention
Clinical Indication
  • Alzheimer's Disease: 30 mg a day improved mild to moderate disease over 16 weeks. 58
  • Versus Donepezil: no significant difference in a 22-week trial, with less vomiting on saffron. 59
  • Child ADHD: a systematic review of the evidence is available. 26
🌙
Sleep, Pain & Women's Health
Clinical Indication
  • Sleep: four weeks of a standardized extract improved sleep quality in older adults. 109
  • Fibromyalgia: comparable to duloxetine in a randomized trial. 110
  • Antidepressant-Related Sexual Dysfunction: improved in men and in women on fluoxetine. 8485
  • Premenstrual Syndrome & Painful Periods: traditional and trial-based indications.
⚖️
Sexual Function & Fertility
Mixed Evidence
  • Erectile Function: improvement in a small pilot study, not borne out in a larger study of 346 men. 8081
  • Semen Quality: improvement in one study, not seen in a study of 260 men. 8283
  • Sexual Behavior: saffron and its constituents increased sexual behavior in male rats. 79
Pharmacodynamics

Mode of Action

Saffron's compounds act on monoamines and glutamate receptors in the brain, and on oxidative stress throughout the body.

🧠

Monoamine Reuptake

Crocin appears to inhibit the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine, and safranal that of serotonin. Saffron also acts on NMDA receptors and GABA-A receptors. 2427

🚪

Crocetin Across the Blood-Brain Barrier

Intestinal hydrolysis turns crocins into trans-crocetin, which crosses the blood-brain barrier and has a strong affinity for NMDA receptors. 47

🔥

TRPA1 Desensitization

Safranal is a partial agonist of the TRPA1 channel and desensitizes it after a first stimulation, which explains its pain-relieving effect. 15

🛡️

Nrf2, NF-κB & Hormesis

Saffron constituents modulate the Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways and lower TNF-α, and hormesis, a beneficial response to low-dose stress, has been proposed as a mechanism. 4950515253

🧬

Protein Aggregation & Neuronal Targets

The stigma extract and crocins inhibit amyloid-beta aggregation, and saffron inhibits alpha-synuclein aggregation in a dose-dependent manner; computer models suggest many neurodegeneration targets. 574648

Clinical Safety

Safety & Interactions

Saffron is safe at usual doses; large amounts are dangerous, and supplements should be avoided in pregnancy.

⚠️

Adverse Effects & Precautions

  • Usual Doses: no significant toxicity in clinical and experimental studies. 111
  • Common Effects: nausea, vomiting and headache. 112
  • High Doses: 400 mg a day can lower blood pressure on standing, and slightly raised creatinine, sodium and urea in healthy volunteers. 112
  • Allergy: occupational allergy and, rarely, anaphylaxis, with cross-sensitivity to some grasses and olive. 112
🚫

Contraindications & Interactions

  • Pregnancy: avoid; 5 g or more stimulates the uterus and 10 g has induced abortion. 112
  • Overdose: about 5 g causes severe effects, including bleeding, and 10 to 20 g may be fatal. 112
  • Bleeding Risk: avoid in bleeding disorders; possible interaction with antiplatelet drugs and rivaroxaban. 112
  • Regulatory Status: French Pharmacopoeia, list A (stigma).
Clinical Disclaimer: This information is for educational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before using saffron, particularly if you are pregnant or breastfeeding, take antidepressants or blood thinners, have a bleeding disorder, or have depression that needs treatment.
Common Questions

Frequently Asked Questions

What is saffron used for?
Saffron (Crocus sativus) stigma extract is used mainly for mild to moderate depression. It is also studied for stress, sleep, memory in early Alzheimer's disease, fibromyalgia, premenstrual symptoms and antidepressant-related sexual dysfunction.
Does saffron help depression?
Yes, in clinical trials. A saffron stigma extract at 30 mg a day matched imipramine and fluoxetine and beat placebo in mild to moderate depression, and petal extract also outperformed placebo. Meta-analyses of randomized trials found saffron more effective than placebo and comparable to standard antidepressants, with good tolerance.
What dose of saffron is used?
The usual dose is 30 to 60 mg a day of a hydro-alcoholic extract of stigmas or petals, titrated to 0.6 to 0.7 mg of safranal. Powder is taken at about 200 mg. Most depression and Alzheimer's trials used 30 mg a day.
Is saffron safe?
At therapeutic doses saffron shows no significant toxicity in clinical and experimental studies. Nausea, vomiting and headache are the common side effects. Very large amounts are dangerous: about 5 g can cause severe effects, and 10 g or more has been fatal.
Can you take saffron during pregnancy?
Saffron supplements should be avoided in pregnancy. Amounts above food levels, about 5 g or more, stimulate the uterus, and 10 g has been used to induce abortion. Safety during breastfeeding has not been established.
Can saffron help with memory or Alzheimer's disease?
A 16-week placebo-controlled trial in mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease used 30 mg of saffron extract a day and reported improvement. In a 22-week trial, saffron did not differ significantly from donepezil, with fewer episodes of vomiting.
Does saffron interact with medicines?
Saffron affected platelets in some studies, so a theoretical interaction exists with antiplatelet drugs, and it may enhance the anticoagulant effect of rivaroxaban. It should be avoided in bleeding disorders. Check with a prescriber if you take blood thinners.
What is the difference between saffron stigma and petal extract?
The stigmas are the traditional spice and drug. Petal extract is a less costly alternative. Petal extract at 30 mg beat placebo from the second week in a depression trial, matched fluoxetine 20 mg in another and compared with stigma extract in a third.
What gives saffron its color, aroma and taste?
Crocin gives the red color, safranal gives the strong, iodine-like aroma, and picrocrocin gives the bitter, pungent taste. Saffron keeps poorly, and it is best used within 12 months.
Sources

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Additional Sources

Wikiphyto. Safran cultivé (Crocus sativus).
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TCM Assistant. Fan Hong Hua.
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